Chapter 8 Motivation: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques Chapter 8: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques April 19, 2017 Chapter 8 Motivation: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques

Learning Goals Describe how people develop expectations about what will happen to them Appreciate differences in the values people place on the results of their behavior Understand the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic outcomes Discuss the role of equity in human motivation and behavior

Learning Goals (Cont.) Use the techniques of goal setting Describe the powerful technique of behavior modification Discuss some international aspects of motivation

Chapter Overview Introduction Expectancy Theory Equity Theory Goal Setting Theory Behavior Modification International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation Ethical Issues in the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation

Introduction Four motivation theories that differ from those in Chapter 7 Three use cognitive processes to explain human behavior The fourth focuses on observable behavior, not cognitive processes

Introduction Cognitive theories Behavioral Theory Expectancy Theory: describes internal processes of choice among different behaviors Equity Theory: describes how and why people react when they feel unfairly treated Goal Setting Theory: focuses on how to set goals for people to reach Behavioral Theory Behavior Modification: focuses on observable behavior, not internal psychological processes

Expectancy Theory Assumptions Forces in the environment and person interact to affect behavior People choose among different courses of action People make choices based on preferences for outcomes of actions Choices are rational; based on perceived value of outcomes of actions

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) People have different preferences for different outcomes Reflect on your preferences for different course grades You will behave in a way to earn your preferred grade You also must believe you will receive your desired grade

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Basic concepts Expectancy Subjective probability that a person’s action will be followed by an outcome Ranges from 0 to 1 0 = no connection between an act and an outcome 1 = connection between the act and the outcome is certain .50 = 50-50 chance that an act will be followed by an outcome

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Basic concepts (cont.) Two types of expectancy Effort-performance expectancy: person’s belief that effort leads to a desired performance level (E P) Performance-outcome expectancy: person’s belief that performance will be followed by some outcome (P O)

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Simple Expectancy Theory model Effort Performance Outcomes View as flows through a pipeline

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Basic concepts (cont.) Valence: preference people have among outcomes Attraction (+) Indifference (0) Avoidance (-) Range: -3 to +3; shows degree of attraction or avoidance a person associates with an outcome

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Relationships between expectancies and valences People perceive a connection between effort and desired performance level People have different preferences for different outcomes People also perceive a link between that performance level and an outcome

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Chapter 8: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques April 19, 2017 Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Formula showing relationships n Motivation = ƒ  (E P)i (P O)i  Vi i=1 

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Multiple outcomes are possible for behavior Outcomes: something positively valued (a raise) or negatively valued (being fired) Person's perception of the valence of all outcomes for a behavior decides the choice of behavior Go toward positively valent outcomes Avoid negatively valent outcomes May consider several possible outcomes at once

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Expectancies and valences combine multiplicatively Importance of a value of 0 for an expectancy or a valence Positively valent outcome but expectancy = 0: little motivation Indifferent to an outcome (valence = 0): not highly motivated even with expectancy = 1

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Motivation = expectancy x valence Valence Effort Performance Outcomes Expectancy Expectancy Text book Figure 8.1

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Types of outcomes Extrinsic outcomes: what people receive from someone else for their performance Intrinsic outcomes: what people give to themselves for their performance Types of motivation Extrinsic motivation (“pull”) Intrinsic motivation (“push”)

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Extrinsic outcomes Effort Performance Intrinsic outcomes Performance and different outcomes

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Extrinsic outcomes Pay increases, promotion, supervisor's praise, quality awards, larger office space Managers give or withhold extrinsic outcomes for employee performance Employee controls the performance level but not directly control the outcome

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Extrinsic outcomes (cont.) Time delay of extrinsic outcomes Example: annual or semiannual pay increases Can reduce motivation effect Related to many different needs: physiological, esteem, self-actualization Provides food and shelter Sign of accomplishment Gives feedback about performance

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Intrinsic outcomes More individual control Little time delay; increases motivation effect Managers do not directly deliver them Managers can provide opportunities for people to experience intrinsic outcomes. Associated mainly with higher order needs such as self-actualization

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Blockages between effort and performance Individual blockages Skills and abilities: perceived and real Task difficulty Experience with task or problem Can increase or decrease the effort-performance expectancy

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Blockages between effort and performance (cont.) Organizational blockages Resources Training Conflict Organizational design Can increase or decrease the effort-performance expectancy

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Individual blockages Effort Performance Outcomes Organizational blockages Effect of blockages: view as flows through a pipeline

Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Expanded Expectancy Theory Model Individual blockages Extrinsic outcomes Effort Performance Intrinsic outcomes Organizational blockages Text book Figure 8.2

Equity Theory Focuses on exchange relationships Perception of equitable or inequitable exchange Exchange relationships: employer-employee, members of a team Some criticism of underlying research Discussion of elements most useful to managers Balance the ratios of inputs to outcomes in exchange relationships

Equity Theory (Cont.) Inputs Characteristics and behaviors the person brings to the exchange relationship Training, education, age, gender, ethnicity Level of effort and performance Person defines the relevant or important inputs Possible basis of conflict in employer-employee exchange

Equity Theory (Cont.) Outputs What the person gets from the exchange relationship Positive outcomes: pay, fringe benefits, competent supervision, friendly coworkers Negative outcomes: close, controlling supervision; monotonous job Person decides positive and negative character of outcomes

Equity Theory (Cont.) Compare ratio of outcomes to inputs to perceived ratio of another person or group Can also compare to Similar ratios in the past Standard of fairness Terms Person: individual making the comparison Other: object of comparison

Equity Theory (Cont.) Equity: ratios roughly balance Person’s perception of equal ratios Example: performance and rewards of self and coworker

Equity Theory (Cont.) Inequity: unequal ratios Negative inequity: underpayment Positive inequity: overpayment Amount of inequity: proportional to the size of perceived discrepancy in the ratios Point of inequity experience is higher for positive inequity than negative inequity Attribute some amount of overpayment to "good fortune” or a just reward for high levels of effort in the past

Equity Theory (Cont.) = A state of equity Person Other Outcomes Inputs

Equity Theory (Cont.) < Negative inequity (“underpayment”) Person Other Outcomes Inputs Outcomes Inputs <

Equity Theory (Cont.) > Positive inequity (“overpayment”) Person Other Outcomes Inputs Outcomes Inputs >

Equity Theory (Cont.) Tension within the individual Motivation to reduce tension Perceived inequity Responses Responses to inequity

Equity Theory (Cont.) Responses to inequity Change inputs Negative inequity: reduce effort or quality of work Positive inequity: increase effort or quality of work Change outcomes: ask for increase in pay or status symbols, such as larger office Cognitively distort own inputs and outcomes Negative inequity: reduce perceived importance of job Positive inequity: increase perceived responsibility in job

Equity Theory (Cont.) Responses to inequity Withdrawal Permanent: leave organization Temporary: increased absences Acting on other: an unfortunately violent possibility Cognitively distort inputs and outcomes of other: overpaid; see more importance in other’s task Change reference groups: shift comparison other to someone else

Equity Theory (Cont.) Equity sensitivity Equity sensitives: react as predicted by equity theory Benevolents: accept negative inequity Entitleds: accept positive inequity with no feelings of guilt

Expectancy Theory and Equity Theory Combined Perception of equitable outcomes Individual blockages Extrinsic outcomes Effort Performance Satisfaction Organizational blockages Intrinsic outcomes

Guidelines Suggested by Expectancy and Equity Theory Tie rewards to performance Preferably tie them to performance close in time Use valued rewards (valence) Watch equity and fairness of reward distribution Incentive: looks to the future Reward: looks to the past

Goal Setting Theory Goal specificity: what, how much, when “Goals that are specific, challenging, reachable, and accepted by a person lead to higher performance than goals that are “fuzzy,” unchallenging, not reachable, or not accepted (p. 142).” Goal specificity: what, how much, when Acceptance of goal important, but how one gets acceptance is not Participation in goal setting increases information about how to reach goal

Goal Setting Theory (Cont.) Performance feedback and some rewards improve performance Goals are dynamic not static Provide training and resources to help people reach goals

Behavior Modification Differs from expectancy and equity theory because it does not use cognitive processes Focuses only on observable behavior Assumptions: People go toward positive outcomes People avoid negative outcomes

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Chapter 8: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques April 19, 2017 Behavior Modification (Cont.) Principles Contingent reinforcement: consequence has strongest effect when delivered after desired behavior occurs Immediate reinforcement: consequence has strongest effect if delivered immediately after behavior occurs Reinforcement size: large consequences have stronger effects than small ones Reinforcement deprivation: longer a person is deprived of a consequence, the stronger its effect on behavior

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Approaches to affecting behavior Managers try to shape behavior by applying or withdrawing consequences Positive consequences Negative consequences Four approaches Positive reinforcement Punishment Extinction Negative reinforcement

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.) Positive reinforcement Applies a positive event to increase the frequency or strength of desirable behavior Example: praise, recognition, sales commissions Increases the likelihood the person will repeat the behavior in the future

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.) Punishment Applies a negative event to decrease the frequency of undesirable behavior Reprimand Time off without pay Punishment stops behavior but does not change its direction

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.) Extinction: withdraws a positive consequence to decrease frequency of undesirable behavior Punishment and extinction have the same target--undesirable behavior Differ sharply in other respects Punishment applies a negative event to a behavior; extinction withdraws a positive event Disruptive staff member in a meeting. Encourage other staff members to not laugh at the disruptive member’s behavior.

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.) Negative reinforcement Increases frequency of desirable behavior by withdrawing a negative event Person tries to escape from or avoid a negative event Supervisor scolds a person for being late for work. Person "escapes" from the negative event by showing up for work on time in the future.

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Schedules of reinforcement Continuous reinforcement Apply a consequence after each behavior Example: thanking someone each time a person does something for you Behavior will occur at a steady high rate as long as the reinforcement continues Behavior stops quickly in the absence of the reinforcer

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Schedules of reinforcement (cont.) Intermittent reinforcement Apply a consequence based on time between behaviors or number of behaviors Produce more enduring changes in behavior than continuous schedules Four intermittent reinforcement schedules

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.) Fixed ratio Apply a consequence after a fixed number of behaviors Example: sales commissions Behavioral response: high and steady; stops quickly when the consequence is withheld

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.) Variable ratio Applies consequence after a varying number of behaviors Example: complimenting employees for good performance, but not praising each occurrence of good performance Behavioral response: high, steady, enduring Uncertainty of variable ratio schedule may add to the lasting quality of behavior

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.) Fixed interval Applies consequence after a constant time between behaviors Example: receiving a paycheck at the end of a pay period Behavioral response: strongest just before the consequence A fixed interval paycheck will not have much effect on job performance Can strongly reinforce organization membership

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.) Variable interval Applies a consequence after different periods between behavior Example: a manager randomly praising employee performance when warranted Behavioral response: strong and steady Behavior endures; not extinguished easily Uncertainty of reinforcement may contribute to the enduring quality of the behavior

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Shaping Technique for gradually changing a person's behavior while aiming for a target behavior Desired change in a person's behavior cannot happen in one step Shaping moves a person's behavior toward the target a step at a time Example: an employee needs to learn a new job or a new procedure

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Shaping (cont.) Use positive reinforcement on a continuous schedule as employee gradually learns Treat behavior that does not move toward the target with extinction: withhold praise Once employee reaches the target, the manager uses an intermittent reinforcement schedule When behavior is well in place, can give reinforcement less often

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Side effects of punishment Many negative side effects People may also perceive extinction as punishment, possibly resulting in side effects Side effects of extinction should be less strong than those of punishment

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Side effects of punishment (cont) Punishment stops behavior temporarily Does not cause the person to adopt desirable behavior Undesirable behavior often returns when the source of punishment is not present Less potent as a shaping tool than positive reinforcement

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Side effects of punishment (cont.) Emotional reactions to punishment Anger Hostility toward source Sabotage of equipment and work process

Behavior Modification (Cont.) Side effects of punishment (cont.) Climate of distrust between manager and subordinates Undermines manager's ability to shape behavior Inflexible behavior particularly when applied in early employment period New employee who is reprimanded after challenging a boss's decisions is unlikely to engage in that behavior later.

International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation Two assumptions that could restrict use of this chapter’s theories outside the U.S. Individual controls decisions about future actions Manager can deliberately shape the behavior of people

International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.) Both assumptions reflect U.S. values of free will, individualism, individual control Cultural contrasts Muslim managers believe something happens mainly because God wills it to happen Hong Kong Chinese believe luck plays a role in all events

International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.) Expectancy Theory's validity in other cultures Japanese female life insurance sales representatives responded to commission system as expected Russian textile workers Linked valued extrinsic rewards to worker performance Productivity increased as the theory predicts

International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.) Equity Theory: complex cross-cultural effects Reward allocation decisions followed equity theory premises in U.S., Russian, and Chinese samples Other studies Chinese emphasized seniority in their reward decisions more than Americans. Eastern European transition economies: endorsed positive inequity more than American students

International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.) Research on Locke's Goal Setting Theory in several countries Results consistent with U.S. work that formulated the theory Some cultural differences U.S. students not affected by how goals were set Israeli students performed better when goals were set participatively; consistent with cultural of cooperation

Ethical Issues and the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation Should a manager tell employees that she or he will try to affect their behavior? Is it ethical to create perceived negative inequity with the hope of forcing out an employee? Should managers use knowledge of human motivation to affect people's behavior in an ethical direction? Should that effort include punishment?

Ethical Issues and the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.) Behavior Modification Should humans be subjected to the type of control offered by Behavior Modification? Who will control the people doing the controlling? What are the ends or purposes of the control? Is it right for managers to use Behavior Modification?

Ethical Issues and the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.) Critics have said "no.” Skinner responded by noting that the idea of no control is an illusion Aspects of people's environments have always controlled their behavior Behavior Modification offers positive reinforcement An alternative to the widespread use of negative forms of control (punishment)

Ethical Issues and the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.) Counter control If target person does not respond to the consequences, they must be rearranged and tried again Controller and target person interact Target of the control may actually control the behavior of the person doing the controlling

Ethical Issues and the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.) Who will control those doing the controlling? No foolproof answer Few doubt that Behavior Modification can be used for evil or good You decide whether your goals are ethical, if you use Behavior Modification