Social Science Department Research Methods Social Science Department

Steps in the Scientific Method Identify and Define the Problem Formulate Hypotheses Select Methodology Collect and Analyze Data Draw Conclusions relevant to Hypothesis Report Results Expand to Future Studies The first steps in the research process are to identify the topic (sometimes called problem or question) of the study. This need not be of tremendous social significance but generally studies worth doing are those which have significant impact on the people or the culture. For the problem to be studied, there must be some form of observable (empirical) data that can be expressed in quantifiable or qualifiable terms.

Formulating Hypotheses Hypothesis = statement of the relationship presumed to exist between dependent and independent variables. Cause and Effect implications Must be testable; dependent variable must be measurable. Based on the review of literature and his/her theoretical assumptions, the researcher formulates a statement that indicates expectations for the results of the study. Ex: The more time one studies, the higher his grades will be. Implied in this statement are a cause and an effect. The independent variable is the element that makes the difference (cause) and the dependent variable is the change that is noted (effect). Ex: independent variable = hours spent studying dependent variable = the grades that are earned It is not always possible to be sure that the IV causes the DV to happen but a probably relationship between the two might be shown. This probable relationship or influence is called correlation. Finally, always remember, the dependent variable must be something that can be observed, measured, counted, etc.

What is a Variable? A concept whose value changes from case to case Two variables are inherent in any hypothesis Independent Dependent

Variables Independent Variable (IV) “cause” it is the part of the study the researcher can control the independent variable influences some change in the dependent variable

Variables Dependent Variable (DV) “effect” it is what the researcher counts or measures it is the recorded change that results from the influence of the independent variable.

Sample Hypotheses Stress influences need for affiliation. Women respond to stress differently than men. Women seek affiliation when stressed; whereas men will seek solitude. Reference: UCLA study, Cousino Klein, et al

Sample Hypotheses Stress influences need for affiliation. IV = Stress DV = need for affiliation Women respond to stress differently than men. IV = Sex (being male or female) DV = response to stress Women seek affiliation when stressed; whereas men will seek solitude. IV = being male or female (sex) DV = seeking affiliation (or not) when stressed

Correlation Correlation – a relationship in which two or more variables change together Positive correlation – both variables change in the same direction The more you study, the higher your grades will be. Negative correlation – one variable increases as the other decreases The more checks you write, the lower your bank balance will be.

Causation Cause and Effect -- a relationship in which we know that change in one (independent) variable causes change in another (dependent) variable Stated in hypothesis Demonstrated by results of experimental design only

Common Methodological Designs Surveys Interviews Questionnaires Observations Participant Unobtrusive Simulated Case studies Experimental Studies Present-oriented or descriptive studies report answers about the current status of a population as it relates to a particular issue. Ex: if the election were held today, which candidate would you vote for? How do you feel about the proposed plan to rezone your neighborhood? We gather data by asking questions, watching people or spending time looking at individual groups. One present-oriented (descriptive) approach is conducting a survey. In survey research we ask questions - either on written questionnaires or orally in interviews. The kinds of questions we ask either allow subjects to answer in their own words (open-ended). For instance, “Explain how you feel about abortion as a mode of birth control? Other forms of questions have specific options from which subjects must choose. (True or False; Agree or disagree; Likert-type scales which as if you agree or disagree to a large extent, somewhat, not much, none at all, etc.) If the subject’s real answer is not represented, the researcher has no way to know what the true information might be. The subject is forced to choose one of the predetermined responses.. Which form of question yields the “best” information? Which form are subjects most likely to answer? Are there some topics or issues that are best approached using survey questions? Another present-oriented (descriptive) approach is to watch people. There are three forms of observation: a. Think about the observation of the gorillas in the early part of the film Gorillas in the Mist. To get a perspective about the nature of gorilla life, it was important that the band of gorillas were not aware that Diane Fosse was watching them. When we study small children playing, it is best to observe them from an unobtrusive vantage point. b. Jules Henry wrote about his research with families of young schizophrenic children in his book Pathways to Madness. He lived for a year at a time with these families -- studying their problem solving skills and their methods of communication, etc. He participated in the lives of their families as he observed and studied them. c. Sometimes what the researcher wants to observe is an infrequent event. The situation is simulated in the laboratory or in some other setting. For example, if you are demonstrating that you have skills in CPR, you don’t wait for someone to experience cardiac arrest. You simulate the correct sequence of breathing and chest compressions on Resusi-Annie.

DV Experimental Design Apply IV Control group Experimental Group Pretest Post-test Apply IV Studies can be organized toward data that will be collected in the future. The essential question is “What will be if…the researcher manipulates certain variables?” This future orientation applies to the classic experimental design. As the researcher sets up the study, he/she premeasures the dependent variable, randomly divides the sample into two groups (a control group and and experimental group); and administers some degree of the independent variable to the experimental group only. If the independent variable has a causal influence on the dependent variable, it will be noticeably changed and different from the dependent variable measurement for the control group.

Collect and Analyze Data Employ the research design Organize and analyze the data Statistical analysis Make decisions relevant to the hypothesis “Accept” or “Fail to accept” or “Support” -- never “prove”

Report Results Publish findings Debrief participants, if needed Support theoretical perspective Spin off next studies

Ethical Issues Do not deceive, coerce or harm the subjects Collect data using ethical procedures Protect confidentiality of subjects Report results accurately The subjects should not feel pressured or forced to be a part of the study. For example, if I were conducting research, it would be unethical of me to insinuate that students in my classes would get better grades if they agreed to be subjects in my studies. I must be honest about the study to the subjects and the support organizations, employers, funding sources, etc. I should collect data with ethical instruments. In other words, no hidden cameras, no method to identify individual responses, in other words, no tricks. Whether or not I can support my hypothesis, I must report the results accurately. I cannot ethically “fudge” on the data.

Exit Exercise Now test your knowledge of the vocabulary with the following matching and flashcards game: http://www.quia.com/jg/279164.html