PSY 330 Lect 2 1 What is Science? Science – set of practices and methods to obtain ____________. Its primary aim is to find order and lawful relations (____________) in the world, called functional relationships Functional relationships = predictable _________ between environmental events, i.e., ________ relationships e.g., there is a relationship between the temperature of a gas and its volume. Goal of behavioral research is to identify the functional relations between__________ events and ______

PSY 330 Lect 1 2 Examples of functional relationships related to behavior: Functional relationship between a rat’s frequency of lever pressing and the consequences of lever pressing: a food pellet is delivered to a rat after it presses a lever, lever pressing will increase in frequency Functional relationship between goal-setting and athletic performance: an athlete who sets short-term goals before a sports event performs better than without setting goals Functional relationship between alcohol use and risk taking: a person who consumes high alcohol does is more likely to take risks than when they consume no alcohol.

PSY 330 Lect 1 3 Purposes of Science 1.___________ 2.___________ 3.___________ (Control) 4.___________

PSY 330 Lect 1 4 Methods of inquiry: Ways of gaining information 1._____________ – believe information from authorities/ experts (method of faith – people have unquestioning trust in authority figures) 2.________________ – information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or beliefs (not a valid method) 3.___________ – persistence of belief based on habit, superstition (not a valid method)

PSY 330 Lect Rationalism (________ method) – reasoning or logic, premises must be correct 5.____________ – gaining knowledge through _________ & ___________, not fail-proof, therefore observations should occur in a structured way to avoid biases e.g., availability heuristic, confirmation bias - see Science emphasizes 4 and 5 Methods of inquiry: Ways of gaining information

PSY 330 Lect 1 6 Primary characteristics of science: 1.______________ Events have knowable causes We must assume that behavior is caused by identifiable variables.

PSY 330 Lect 1 7 Primary characteristics of science: 2._______________ Observations are structured so that researcher’s _______ (experimenter bias) doesn’t influence the study’s outcomes Emphasis on _________ events Observations should be verifiable by others – that is, others should be able to _______ or repeat observation Events, procedures should be defined precisely (Requires operational definitions )

PSY 330 Lect 1 8 Primary characteristics of science: 3. Data-driven (_____________) Conclusions about behavior are to be supported by evidence gathered through systematic methods 4. Conclusions subject to __________ Conclusions are tentative Often see conclusions altered as new discoveries are made Science requires patience Science is a self-correcting process

PSY 330 Lect 1 9 Primary characteristics of science: 5. Empirical questions Questions are asked in a way that can be answered by ____________

PSY 330 Lect 1 10 Which of the following questions could be tested scientifically? Can you rewrite these questions to make them more precise? 1. Does caffeine make people anxious? 2. Do infants dream? 3. Is psychotherapy more beneficial than psychiatric medication? 4. Do college students consume more beer than other age groups?

PSY 330 Lect 1 11 Does caffeine make people anxious? This question is testable but it needs to be more precise. Is the dosage of caffeine critical? Does the same dosage of caffeine affect some people but not others? What is anxiety? Research questions in psychology must be stated in very specific terms so that they can be interpreted objectively and so that other researchers can ask the same question and replicate the study.

PSY 330 Lect 1 12 Do infants dream? This question is not testable because we do not know what the infant experiences in his or her mind when asleep. But one solution is to look for behaviors and physical signs that indicate dreaming in adults and then see whether they also occur in infants, e.g., REM sleep

PSY 330 Lect 1 13 Is psychotherapy more beneficial than psychiatric medication? This question is testable but is too general. What type of psychotherapy? What type of psychiatric disorder? What type and dosage of medication? A better question would be, "Do mildly depressed women, as assessed on the Beck Depression Inventory, improve more after 4 months of cognitive therapy or 4 months of Prozac?" Studies in psychology set out to answer tightly defined questions. Sweeping, all-or-none claims, such as therapy is better than psychiatric medication, are rarely warranted. Instead, psychology sets out to determine under what conditions therapy, medication, or a combination of the two are better for the treatment of particular symptoms and disorders.

PSY 330 Lect 1 14 Do college students consume more beer than other age groups? This question is testable but needs to be more precise. What age of college students and what are the comparison age groups? Under what conditions?