 Psychological needs, drives, dispositions  Our views of international affairs (received as result of childhood experience)—tolerance or fear of cultural diversity  images of world history as shaped by teachers and books  opinions about world affairs articulated by close associates, peers  attitudes expressed by policymakers or authority figures we respect  positions we occupy and roles we perform—student, parent, bureaucrat, diplomat etc.

 Decision makers tend to seek cognitive balance (consistency) by discounting ideas or information that contradict their existing views  Cognitive dissonance is a feeling of anguish caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously. These ideas (cognitions) may include attitudes and beliefs, the awareness of one's behavior, and facts.  This influential theory in social psychology holds that people have an internal motivation to reduce dissonance. They either change their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors or integrate them within their existing belief system.

 Theory is an explanatory framework; it helps us to see the wood for the trees.  Theory exists to explain, comprehend, and interpret reality.  Without theory, it is impossible to understand reality.

 it is a vehicle to gain understanding  foregrounds certain aspects of the world and provides a guide as to what to investigate  it acts as a useful filing system, a framework within which to place observations of reality  it enables us to look for patterns and allows for generalizations  creates framework for logical coherence and depth  systematically links together concepts, ideas, and hypotheses

Why is it important to distinguish levels of analysis?  No single source produces transformation in international relations  Interrelationships exist across the levels of analysis  Trends and transformations in international relations are affected by forces operating at each level and by interactions among them  Methodological rigor—pursuit of scientific standards by stating assumptions and thus limitations  Disciplines our observations so that we don’t overlook or dismiss evidence that runs counter to our intuition/perception

 First level: individual  Second level: domestic  Third level: interstate/systemic  Fourth level: global/transnational/transsovereign

Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010