Islam, Women, and Sports in Sub-Saharan Africa Martha Saavedra Center for African Studies, UC Berkeley October 2006

Q: “Islam’s impact on women’s sport?”  ‘Islam’ is not an obstacle to the participation of women in sport.  Islam can shape the sporting experience of people as gendered subjects.  Impact varies widely, depending on  Interpretation  Practice  Politicization by individuals, organizations & states

Outline  Three issues  Clarifying Question  Elements involved?  Transnational and global nature of contemporary sport  Theology and Practice  Islam and Sport  Abuja 2003 Continued…

Outline -continued  Examples from  Senegal  Sudan  Nigeria  Zanzibar and South Africa

Clarifying the Question: Intersections? IslamGender Sport

IslamGender Sport Emphasis on lived experience, not on theological understandings Need for spatial and historical grounding anticipating variation across space and time Generalizations - tentative

Clarifying the Question: Elements? Islam Gender Sport Distinguish influence of Islam from other factors – educational opportunities general availability of facilities living standards leisure time, etc

Clarifying the Question: Elements? Islam Gender Sport Distinguish influence of Islam from other factors – effect of colonialism different colonial practices & institutions traditions & customs varied & mutable

Clarifying the Question: Elements? Islam Gender Sport Distinguish influence of Islam from other factors – Political Economy Debt burdens Declining terms of trade Dependency Structural Adjustment Poverty

Clarifying the Question: Elements? Islam Gender Sport Not interchangeable with “women,” even if women are main concern Ask question carefully - “Does a particular articulation of Islam prevent females from pursuing sport in ways that do not prevent men from pursuing sport?”

Clarifying the Question: Elements? Islam Gender Sport Address gender more broadly for increased understanding – “How does nexus of sport and Islam shapes masculinity?” can lend insight into how sport shapes femininity.

Nature of Sport itself  Implicated in fabric of political and social life.  Definition:  competitive physical activity guided by rules  with some reference to an institutional framework

Nature of Sport in Africa  Most organized sport influenced or structured by Western practice.

Nature of Sport in Africa  Most organized sport influenced or structured by Western practice.  Hence, carries historical and cultural baggage.

Nature of Sport in Africa  Most organized sport influenced or structured by Western practice.  Hence, carries historical and cultural baggage.  Weberian rationalization (Guttman 1978)

Nature of Sport in Africa  Most organized sport influenced or structured by Western practice.  Hence, carries historical and cultural baggage.  Weberian rationalization (Guttman 1978)  Particular Western values –  Democratic equality  Corporate capitalist exploitation

Nature of Sport in Africa  More Western baggage  Gendered systems of sport  Hegemonic heterosexual hyper-masculinity

Nature of Sport in Africa  More Western baggage  Gendered systems of sport  Hegemonic heterosexual hyper-masculinity  Posited against any homosexual visibility

Nature of Sport in Africa  More Western baggage  Gendered systems of sport  Hegemonic heterosexual hyper-masculinity  Posited against any homosexual visibility  Rules out muscular femininity  For binary and exclusive definition of sexuality

Nature of Sport in Africa  More Western baggage  Gendered systems of sport  Hegemonic heterosexual hyper-masculinity  Posited against any homosexual visibility  Rules out muscular femininity  In a binary and exclusive definition of sexuality  Women’s pursuit of sport  Always problematic  Challenge to hegemonic norms of sexuality

Nature of Sport in Africa  Sport, gender & Islam in Africa  Marked by Western trajectories  As much as by local practices of Islam  Which also have transnational influences

Nature of Sport in Africa  Interaction of local – global  Variable outcomes in African settings  Western outcomes not a teleological paradigm that is desirable or inevitable

Nature of Sport in Africa  Interaction of local – global  Variable outcomes in African settings  Western outcomes not a teleological paradigm that is desirable or inevitable  Yes, Western hegemony is formidible  But – local is also powerful  Can also influence global…

Nature of Sport in Africa  Multiple Trajectories!

Islam and Sport  Sport  Body is Central  Physical manipulation  Physicality  Mapped with forces  Political  Economic  Social  Cultural  Psychological  Spiritual

Islam and Sport  Sport  Body is Central  Physical manipulation  Physicality  Mapped with forces  Magnifies beliefs about physical possibilities  Including, sexual difference

Islam and Sport  Sport  Body is Central  Physical manipulation  Physicality  Mapped with forces  Magnifies beliefs about physical possibilities  Including, sexual difference  Islam  Concern for body  Piety & Modesty  Health & Hygiene  Defensive preparation  Intellectual and moral education

Islam and Sport  Sport  Body is Central  Physical manipulation  Physicality  Mapped with forces  Magnifies beliefs about physical possibilities  Including, sexual difference  Islam  Concern for body  Piety & Modesty  Health & Hygiene  Defensive preparation  Intellectual and moral education  For some  Regulation of clothing for women AND men while engaged in physical activity

Clothing

Islam and Sport  Goal of sport critical

Islam and Sport  Goal of sport critical  e.g. Seeking fame and glory takes away from worshiping Allah

Islam and Sport  Goal of sport critical  e.g. Seeking fame and glory takes away from worshiping Allah  Avoid deviations  Commercialism  Gambling  Doping  The occult  Mixing of sexes

Islam and Sport  For some, problem of global (“Western”) forms of sport  Commercialized  Glory and fame central  Media – public – exposure  Especially problematic for females  Not a problem for all…

Abuja, All Africa Games 2003 Female Representation on National Teams at October 2003 All-Africa Games, Abuja, Nigeria African countries with predominantly Muslim populations do send female athletes, who often make up significant portions of the national teams. AND countries with predominantly Muslim populations often do better then countries with smaller Muslim populations.

Senegal  Sport primarily masculine venture  Significant room for women  Dakar  Women’s Basketball  Third most popular spectator sport  Other sports  Multiple levels of participation

Senegal  Obstacles  Gender neutral  Individual & infrastructural poverty –  Pas des moyens

Senegal  Obstacles  Gender neutral  Individual & infrastructural poverty –  Pas des moyens  Gendered  Broad socio-cultural perspective

Senegal  Obstacles  Gender neutral  Individual & infrastructural poverty –  Pas des moyens  Gendered  Broad socio-cultural perspective  Islam not primary factor  Though may be used to justify  Relatively tolerant form of Islam (Callaway & Creevey)

Senegal  Obstacles  Gender neutral  Gendered  Broad socio-cultural perspective  Not particularly Islamic  Found across Africa and beyond (even in US)

Senegal  Obstacles  Gender neutral  Gendered  Broad socio-cultural perspective  Femininity  Fertility  Ideal body-type

Senegal  Ideal Body Type  Women’s form representing substance of  Herself  Her family  Especially her husband

Senegal  Ideal Body Type  Women’s form representing substance of  Herself  Her family  Especially her husband  Muscles  Indicate physical labor

Senegal  Ideal Body Type  With urbanization emerges  Drianke Pharmaceutical misused to increase appetite so as to gain weight and appear more substantial.

Senegal  Ideal Body Type  With urbanization emerges  Drianke  Disquette

Senegal  Ideal Body Type  Avoid physical education  Doctor’s note  Counter forces supporting Athletic body  Headmistress  Role Models  Adama Diop  Mame Maty Mbengue  Remunerative careers

Senegal  Role of Islam in sport?  Surveys indicate not a big concern for female athletes  Tolerant  Not dismissed  Studies, seminars  Sent team to 3 rd Muslim Women’s Games in Tehran, October 2001 – post-9/11 solidarity.

Senegal  Ahmadu Bamba at the World Cup 2002

Sudan  Islam  More restrictive practice for women in North

Sudan  Islam  More restrictive practice for women in North  Mitigated by class

Sudan  Outside Central Region and North  War, drought, poverty inhibit all

Sudan  Orthodox Islam  Dampened female participation in sport  Like Senegal, avoid physical labor, e.g. wives and daughters in fields, if upwardly mobile

Sudan  Orthodox Islam  Dampened female participation in sport  Like Senegal, avoid physical labor, e.g. wives and daughters in fields, if upwardly mobile  Physical labor for men also looked down on if upwardly mobile  Making even men’s participation in sport potentially suspect.

Sudan  Orthodox Islam  Dampened female participation in sport  Like Senegal, avoid physical labor, e.g. wives and daughters in fields, if upwardly mobile  Being elite – tied to being good Sudanese Muslim (Doornbus 1988)

Sudan  Effect of class  Among educated and confident elite  Muslim girls active in sport

Sudan  Effect of class  Among educated and confident elite  Muslim girls active in sport  PE in British educational system  Volleyball, basketball, swimming  University of Khartoum  Pool – reserved days for female students

Sudan  Effect of class  Among educated and confident elite  Muslim girls active in sport  PE in British educational system  Volleyball, basketball, swimming  University of Khartoum  Pool – reserved days for female students  But usually not beyond post-secondary education

Sudan  Most do not have access to education  Quotas on girls  Parents reluctance

Sudan  Most do not have access to education  Physical activity not avoided  Intense – chores – household, farm, childcare, etc  Ali Mazrui’s suggestion  More sports that draw on daily laboring skills (1987)

Sudan  More restrictions  September Laws 1983  Islamicization after 1989 coup  Martial training for boys  Declining economy and civil war  Fewer elites internationally

Sudan  More restrictions  September Laws 1983  Islamicization after 1989 coup  Martial training for boys  Declining economy and civil war  Fewer elite athletes internationally  Still, very elite still active  2003 Abuja – one female athlete – tennis player

Sudan  January 2004, in 2 days, passport for Yamile Aldama  Cuban born triple jumper.

Sudan  January 2004, in 2 days, passport for Yamile Aldama  Cuban born triple jumper.  Olympic hopeful  Sudan – international stature  Hijab?

2004 Triple Jump Gold  Francoise Mbango Etone of Cameroon

New Sudanese Athlete  Nawal el Jack  Set the girl’s record (and a personal best at 51.83) in the 400 meters at the World Youth Championships in July 2005 in Morocco. Competed at the World Championships in Helsinki in 2005, though did not place.  Where does she train? - I don’t know

Nigeria  February 2003  Northern State, Niger, bans women’s football  “not in conformity with our culture.” Abdul-Khadir Kure, Governor

Nigeria  Zamfara in 2000  Declared shari’a law  Immediately women’s football banned  “the sport is against the teachings of Islam” state director of sports

Nigeria  Moot?  Many parents in Northern Nigeria would not let daughters play anyway.

Nigeria  Complex, diverse, multifaceted country  Colonial period  Strong, centralized Islamic states continued unlike in Senegal  Islam less tolerant of secular  In North, female seclusion

Nigeria  Current national and international climate has lead to:  Hardening of identities  Influence from Islamicists from Saudi and elsewhere  Wahabism

Nigeria  Why focus on women’s football?  Success of national women’s football team  Challenge to gender norms  Connection to practices in the South Mercy Akide

Nigeria  Miss World Pageant  Two weeks later Africa Cup for Women in South with no problems.  Part of larger struggle within Nigeria  Amina Lawal case  Why football was singled out?

Nigeria  Marked as masculine sport in much of football loving world (not the US so much)  Because men’s so globally popular?  Male hegemony reinforced  British FA’s ban on women’s football  1921 – 1971

Nigeria  Why football was singled out?  Marked as masculine sport in much of football loving world (not the US so much)  Because men’s so globally popular?  Male hegemony reinforced  British FA’s ban on women’s football  1921 – 1971  Issue of masculinity and football…

Sport and Masculinity  Muscular Christianity  British colonial influence  Zanzibar (Fair 1997)  Local Islamic elite collaborate with British colonial administration  Elevate men’s football  Stamp out Ngoma dancing  Within Ngoma – men dress as women

Sport and Masculinity  Zanzibar (Fair 1997)  Within Ngoma – men dress as women  “Vulgar and obscence” by elite  “Effeminate” – Colonial administration  Football  Masculine!

Sport and Masculinity  Cape Town, South Africa (Nauright 1998)  Muslim Coloured working class community  Promoted rugby  Discipline  Social cohesion  Manliness  Character formation  Muscular Islam  Physical intimidation

Sport and Masculinity  Cape Town, South Africa (Nauright 1998)  Muslim Coloured working class community  Promoted rugby  Muscular Islam  Physical intimidation  Required by setting  Apartheid  Class politics

Sport and Masculinity  Cape Town, South Africa (Nauright 1998)  Muslim Coloured working class community  Rugby and Muslim Coloured Identity  Even girls played – when they were young  As matured, steered to other sports  Netball, softball

Sport and Masculinity  Cape Town, South Africa (Nauright 1998)  Muslim Coloured working class community  Rugby and Muslim Coloured Identity  Even girls played – when they were young  As matured, steered to other sports  Netball, softball  Women as supporters  Knit scarves  Sew uniforms

Conclusions  Islam part of set of factors  Local trajectories  Masculinity as well as femininity  More research needed!