“Kritikos” To question, to make sense of, to analyze

Syllogistic reasoning

Ethos Pathos Logos

Cell phones present a danger to health.

It is wrong to grade on a curve?

The drinking age should be lowered to 18.

Toulmin Conclusion Claim Reason Warrant Evidence Grounds Assumption

We argue like this… Conclusion The Truth IS We should Reason Because Backing And furthermore Conclusion The Truth IS We should Reason Because Evidence The Facts Are Assumption I believe I value Possible Rebuttal Unless Qualifier Probably

Conclusion or Claim Reasons or Warrant Evidence or Grounds Value and Descriptive Assumptions

Assumptions Value Assumption: Taken for granted belief about what is most important. Descriptive Assumption: Taken for granted belief about how the world is, or will become.

Examples of Assumptions It’s a “dog-eat-dog” world out there. (descriptive) It’s more important to get ahead than to be fair. (value)

Examples of Assumptions Most people want to be and try to be good. (descriptive) It’s more important for everyone to have their basic needs met than for a small group of people to have a lot, even if they worked very hard for it. (value)

Types of Reasoning Cause Example Analogy Sign Criteria (Deductive)

Reasoning by Cause The answer to what will happen or why did that happen? One event is claimed to be the result of another. “ Enrollment went up because tuition went down.”

Studies show that students who take music lessons get higher grades Studies show that students who take music lessons get higher grades. Students should take music lessons if they want better grades.

Reasoning by Example Using specific examples to come to general conclusions.

“Every time we have used the program, management response has been positive. This is a very popular program and I’m sure you’ll like it.”

Reasoning by Analogy Since A and B are essentially alike, what is true of A is true of B.

This worked for our company in New Jersey so well, it should work in our Massachusetts location, too.

Reasoning by Sign A and B are so strongly related that the presence or absence of one indicates the presence or absence of the other. “There’s a lot of smoke coming from that building. It’s probably on fire.”

Deductive (Syllogistic) Using principles, laws, rules or beliefs as the premise of the argument. (If(All men are mortal (major premise) (If) Socrates is a man (minor premise) (Then) Socrates is mortal (conclusion)

We have a professional dress code. Sarah is wearing a very short skirt. Sarah needs to wear a longer skirt.

Being ethical is more important than making money. An employer needs to offer health insurance to employees in order to be ethical. We need to offer health insurance even if it lowers our profits.

Holistic approaches have a good record of helping people stay healthy. The primary goal of medicine is to help people stay healthy. Holistic approaches have a good record of helping people stay healthy. Holistic approaches should be included in medical treatments.

Analyzing the Arguments What is the claim? What are the reasons? Are the reasons strong? What is the evidence? Is the evidence strong? What are the assumptions?