1. Argument Moves from what is know to what is unknown
Difference between intuitively arguing and making well-founded arguments.
Combination of scientific reasoning with requirements of public debates
Foundation of modern debate is the Toulmin Model

2. Involves dealing with uncertainty
You may wish to convince others that a claim is
Absolutely true: need very strong data
Probably true: strong data, small exceptions
True in a few cases: weaker data, but still some proof for the claim

3. The toulmin model
British philosopher, Stephen Toulmin, studied how people
Develop arguments
Determined validity
Validity: a test for the logical coherence of an argument
An argument that is not reasonably constructed is not valid
You start with data and try to persuade the judge that you are warranted in moving from the data to the claim.

4. The First Triad
Claim
Evidence
Warrant

5. Claim A conclusion of reasoning
The proposition that the arguer desires to be accepted
Factual claim: something either is or is not the case
Value claim: what an individual thinks is good or bad
Policy claim: what should or should not be done

6. Data Also known as grounds Testimony, examples, and statistics
Testimony: opinion that is offered on behalf of the truth of a claim
Experience
General reputation
Examples: instances used to demonstrate a claim’s validity
Clearly observed and defined
Statistics: demonstrate wide-spread effect of a claim

7. Warrant
Shows the relevance and importance of the relationship between data and claim
Evidence infers that a claim is true
A generalization based on data

8. 6 Main Strategies: Warrant → Claim
1. Generalization: connects what is true with what is likely true
2. Sign: connects the evidence as a sign, clue, or symptom of the claim.
3. Authority: connects the evidence to an authoritative source
4. Analogy: connects the evidence and claim using analogies
5. Causality: connects the evidence as being caused by the claim
6. Principle: connects the evidence and claim as an application of a broader, relevant principle.

9. He is a citizen of the United States
From Data to Claim
Data
Warrant
Claim
He was born in Hawaii
Hawaii is a state, & the Constitution declares everyone born in US a citizen; therefore, we can infer that a person born in Hawaii is a citizen
He is a citizen of the United States

10. The Second Triad
Backing
Counterarguments/Rebuttals
Qualifiers

11. Rebuttals, Reservations, and Qualifiers
Rebuttal: a possible condition under which the relationship between data and claim would not hold; the exception to the rule
Reservation: an announced exception to the rule
Qualifier: a term that expresses the degree of confidence that you have in the relationship between data and claim
Almost certainly = high confidence
Simply possible = low confidence
Probable

12. Data to Claim Data Warrant Claim
Hard study and A grades in music, history, and language arts
Hard study in this representative sample of cases leads to a sound generalization
Hard study leads to good grades
Qualifier: probable
Reservation: unless some courses are too hard
Rebuttal: examples of where hard study did not result in good grades