Chapter 7 Motivation Concepts

Learning Objectives Describe the three elements of motivation. Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today. Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Understand the implications of employee engagement for management. Compare and contrast goal setting theory and management by objectives. Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory. Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory. Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees. Compare contemporary theories of motivation.

Defining Motivation Motivation The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal

Early Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory General Examples Organizational Examples Achievement Self Actualization Needs Challenging Job Status Esteem Needs Job Title Friendship Social / Belongingness Needs Friends in Work Stability Security / Safety Needs Pension Plan Sustenance Physiological Needs Base Salary Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied Must move in hierarchical order

Early Theories of Motivation McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Theory Y (basically positive) Theory X (basically negative) Workers are self-directed Enjoy work Accept responsibility Workers have little ambition Dislike work Avoid responsibility Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees No empirical evidence to support this theory

Early Theories of Motivation Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory The Traditional View Satisfaction Dissatisfaction The Herzberg’s View Satisfaction Dissatisfaction The Motivation Factors Satisfaction No Satisfaction The Hygiene Factors No Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction = Achievement = Recognition = The Work it self = Responsibility = Advancement and Growth = Supervision = Working Conditions = Interpersonal Relationships = Pay and Job Security = Company Policies Intrinsic to the Work Extrinsic to the Work Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs

Early Theories of Motivation Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Herzberg is limited by his procedure - Participants had self-serving bias Reliability of raters questioned - Bias or errors of observation No overall measure of satisfaction was used Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity

Early Theories of Motivation McClelland’s Three Needs Theory Need for Achievement The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success – avoiding very low or high risk situations Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk Don’t necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus Most good general managers do not have a high need for achievement Need high level of need for power and low need for affiliation for managerial success Good research support but it is not a very practical theory Need for Power The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise Need for Affiliation The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships People have varying levels of each of the three needs which is hard to measure

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Self DeterminationTheory A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation. Cognitive Evaluation Theory Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation Self-concordance When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with personal interests and core values (intrinsic motivation), people are happier and more successful. Feel having control Want to do the work Have to do the work

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Job Engagement The investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance. What are the Consequences of High Job Engagement? Positive performance and citizenship behaviors

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Goal Setting Theory Specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance. Why difficult goals? Relationship between goals and performance depends on: Feedback – Performance relationship - Goal commitment (the more public the better!) - Task characteristics (simple, well-learned) – National culture (best match is in North America)

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Goal Setting Theory (Implementing Goal Setting) Management by Objectives (MBO) A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting Goals must be: Tangible – Verifiable - Measurable Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization. Four common ingredients to MBO programs: Goal Specificity - Participative decision making - Explicit time period - Performance feedback

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Self-Efficacy Theory Self Efficacy An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task Greater confidence Greater persistence in the face of difficulties Better response to negative feedback (work harder) That’s why self-efficacy complements goal-setting theory Increasing self-efficacy: Enactive mastery Vicarious modeling Verbal persuasion Arousal

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement Theory Behavior is a function of its consequences Environment Thought are ignored Behavior is controlled by its consequences Not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Equity Theory Equity Theory Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others and then respond to eliminate any inequities When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – no tension as the situation is considered fair When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness Equity Under rewarded – Over rewarded Outcomes (self) Inputs (self) Inputs (others) Outcomes (others) Compared With

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Equity Theory Referent Comparisons Self-Inside Self-Outside Others-Inside Others-Outside Motivation to Equity Maintain current situation Motivation to Inequity Change inputs Change outcomes Distort/change perceptions of self Distort/change perceptions of others Choose a different referent person Leave the field

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Equity Theory Organizational Justice An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace Distributive Justice Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals Procedural Justice Perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards Interactional Justice The perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity, concern, and respect

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Expectancy Theory The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual Individual Effort Individual Performance Organizational Rewards Personal Goals 1 2 3 Effort - Performance Relationship Performance – Reward Relationship Rewards- Personal Goals Relationship

Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation