Neandertals, the Genus Homo and the Pleistocene

The Pleistocene “The Ice Age”: advances and retreats of massive glaciations. Glaciations: climatic intervals when continental ice sheets cover much of the northern continents. Colder in northern latitudes, more arid conditions in southern latitudes, especially Africa. At least 15 major and 50 minor glacial advances documented in Europe alone!

The Pleistocene Interglacials: Climatic intervals when continental ice sheets retreat. In northern latitudes this means warmer temperatures while in southern latitudes the climate becomes wetter.

The Pleistocene Middle Pleistocene: the Pleistocene from 780,000 years ago to 125,000 years ago. Late Pleistocene: the Pleistocene from 125,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago.

The Pleistocene In Africa Changing rainfall patterns Glacial periods the climate would become more arid. Interglacial periods would increase rainfall Resulted in changing availability of food resources and changing migration routes.

Homo heidelbergensis 800,000 years ago to 200,000 years ago Lived in Africa, Europe and Asia. Named for the city of Heidelberg, Germany.

Homo heidelbergensis

Homo heidelbergensis Considered to be the species which links Homo erectus to Homo sapiens. Brain size very near to that of modern humans. Average 1,200 cc. 30% larger than the average brain size of H. erectus and only 10% smaller than modern humans.

Homo heidelbergensis Cranial characteristics: Face does not protrude as much as the face of H. erectus. But still large when compared with H. sapiens. Still has large brow ridges but they have tapered sides and are more separate.

Homo heidelbergensis Tools: Acheulian tools (like H. erectus) Around 300,000 years ago began the Levallois technique of stone tool technology.

Homo heidelbergensis Levallois technique: Named after a site in France. Also called the “prepared core method.” Core is prepared in a way that the finished tool can be removed from the core in one final blow. Very efficient process: multiple tools can be made from the same core. Creates very sharp tools.

Homo heidelbergensis Hunting: There are a number of H. heidelbergensis sites which have clear evidence of hunting. Butchered animal bones of complete animals (also these remains show that the animals were adults and in good health, so they did not die of natural causes).

Homo heidelbergensis Hunting: Wooden spears Found at a site in Germany. Dates to 400,000 years ago Spruce, ~78 cm (31 inches) both ends sharpened 1.8-2.5 m (6-8 ft) Found in context with butchered horse remains.

Language When did language emerge in human evolution? H. erectus? H. heidelberensis? H. sapien? (within the past 50,000 years?)

Language How did it emerge? Rapidly with abrupt change in quality? Gradual , building on previous capabilities? Apes have some capacity for language, and since humans split from apes long before the genus Homo was in existence than all hominins had some language ability.

Language Brain structure through endocasts Studies have been done on the brain size of H. erectus and H. heidelberensis which show that language development was present in H. erectus and almost complete by H. heidelbergensis. Cranial flexing: for the larynx and hyoid

Neandertals Many anthropologists classify Neandertals as a subspecies of H. sapiens: Homo sapiens neanderthalensis. “Thal” means “valley” in the old spelling of Neandertal (Neanderthal) but the “h” is not pronouced.

Neandertals Remains of Neandertals have been found dating as far back as 130,000 years ago. Western Europe “Classic Neandertal” not all Neandertals fit this morphology. Some, from Asia and eastern Europe during interglacial periods, are less robust, possibly due to climate.

Neandertals Brain size: larger than the brain size of modern human: H. sapiens = 1,300 to 1,400 cm Neandertals = 1,520 cm Possibly due to the metabolic efficiency of a larger brain in colder climates.

Neandertals Cranial structure: Large, long and low cranium Bulging at the temporals (sides of the cranium) Forehead is more vertical than H. erectus Brow ridges arch over the eye orbits rather than in a strait bar. Occipital bun.

Sexual dimorphism

Neandertals La Chapelle-aux-Saints, southwestern France: It was one of the most important Neandertal discoveries. 1908 (first Neandertal remains were found in 1829). Nearly complete Neandertal skeleton (male, unusually robust, arthritic, ~40 years old). Buried in a a shallow grave in a flexed position. Several fragments of non-human long bone were placed over the head, flint tools and animal bone surrounded the body. Marcellin Boule and “Mr. Neandertal”

Neandertals El Sidron cave, northern Spain: 49,000 ya Fragmented remains of 12 individuals Evidence of butchering, cannibalized? The adult males (3) were closely related, while the adult females (3) were not. Patrilocal form of mating? (males stay together and mate with females of other groups).

Neandertals Shanidar Cave, Zagros Mountains, Iraq: Multiple burials, 1 of which (Shanidar I) was male, ~ 45 years old Crushing blow to the left side of the head, displacing the left eye and likely causing blindness. Massive blow to the right side of the body, paralyzing the right arm and much of the right side of his upper body. Lower body also damaged, probably had a limp. All of this occurred years before death!!

Neandertals Shanidar Cave, Zagros Mountains, Iraq: Shanidar IV “the flower burial.” Male, 35-40 years old. Buried in a flexed position. Known as “The Flower Burial.” Soil samples show the presence of large amounts of pollen over the burial (Yarrow, Cornflower, Bachelor's Button, Thistle, Hollyhock, Grape Hyacinth and more)

Neandertals Tools: Mousterian tools (named after the site where they were first discovered). Flake tool technology

Neandertals Subsistence Hunting: Evidence that Neandertals were not nomadic. Caves have been found which show muligenerational use. Both year round and seasonal.

Neandertals Symbolic behavior? 6 sites in separate locations have the skulls of cave bears stacked on top of each other. At the present we don’t know why.

Neandertals Neandertals and Homo sapiens: Mate recognition: would they have recognized each other as potential mates? Genetic fit: according to genetic studies we are similar enough. Life History fit: Gestation periods may have differed. Geography: lived in the same areas for 35,000 years.

Neandertals DNA Studies: First done in 1997, dates to about 40,000 ya Mitochondrial DNA: 2008, researchers sequence the ENTIRE mitochondrial DNA sequence from a 38,000 ya Neandertal fossil. This shows a divergence between Neandertals and living humans about 660,000 years ago. Shows no correlation of breeding between modern humans and Neandertals

Neandertals Nuclear DNA studies are being done which do suggest mating did occur. 99.5 identical genome. 1 to 4 percent of modern human’s genetic makeup.

Neandertals Old Ideas: New Ideas: Quintessential “caveman.” Barely able to scratch out an existence. Limited intelligence and technology. New Ideas: Burials were ritualized. Care for injured individuals. Sophisticated tools Potential interbreeding with humans.