History & Development of Forensic Science

When in Rome… “Forensic” comes from the Latin word “forum” meaning ‘a market place’. During the time of the Romans, a criminal charge meant presenting the case before the public. Both the person accused of the crime & the accuser would give speeches based on their side of the story. The individual with the best argumentation would determine the outcome of the case.

Forensic as term For many years the term 'forensic' had a restricted definition and denoted a legal investigation but it is now commonly used for any detailed analysis of past events i.e. when one looks for evidence ‘Forensic biology' is defined broadly as 'the application of the science of biology to legal investigations' and therefore covers human anatomy and physiology, organisms ranging from viruses to vertebrates and topics from murder to the trade in protected plant species

A bit of history Early origins of ‘forensics’ appear in ancient Egypt and later in Mesopotamia. In the 6th century first book in forensic medicine in China, followed by the first forensic textbook in 12th century Office of the coroner was established in England in the 9th century

Some known and less known historic figures in development of forensics Sir Arthur Conan Doyle Sci-fi author in late 1800’s Popularized scientific crime-detection methods through his hi his fictional character. Mathieu Orfila the father of toxicology Wrote about the detection of poisons & their effects on animals. Alphonse Bertillon the father of Anthropometry Developed a system to distinguish one individual person from another based on certain body measurements.

Some known and less known historic figures in development of forensics Francis Galton “Father of Fingerprinting” Developed fingerprinting as a way to uniquely identify individuals. Leone Lattes He developed a procedure for determining the blood type (A, B, AB, or O) of a dried blood stain Calvin Goddard Developed the technique to examine bullets, using a comparison microscope, to determine whether or not a particular gun fired the bullets

Edmond Locard “Father of the Crime Lab” In 1910, he started the 1st crime lab in an attic of a police station. With few tools, he quickly became known world- wide to forensic scientists & criminal investigators & eventually founded the Institute of Criminalistics in France. His most important contribution was the “Locard’s Exchange Principle”

Locard’s Exchange Principle “Every Contact Leaves a Trace.” He believed that every criminal can be connected to a crime by particles carried from the crime scene. When a criminal comes in contact with an object or person, a cross-transfer of evidence occurs. Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as a silent witness against him. Not only his fingerprints or his footprints, but his hair, the fibers from his clothes, the glass he breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or semen he deposits or collects. All of these and more, bear mute witness against him. This is evidence that does not forget. It is not confused by the excitement of the moment. It is not absent because human witnesses are. It is factual evidence. Physical evidence cannot be wrong, it cannot perjure itself, it cannot be wholly absent. Only human failure to find it, study and understand it, can diminish its value. - Professor Edmond Locard

J. Edgar Hoover Director of Federal Bureau of Investigation during the 1930’s Hoover's leadership spanned 48 yrs & 8 presidential administrations. His reign covered Prohibition, the Great Depression, WWII, the Korean War, the Cold War, & the Vietnam War. He organized a national laboratory to offer forensic services to all law enforcement agencies in the U.S. VERY CONTROVERSIAL He exceeded & abused his authority with unjustified investigations & illegal wiretaps based on political beliefs rather than suspected criminal activity FBI directors are now limited to 10-year terms

Applications of Forensic Science Identification of Criminals or Victims Solving Mysteries Past crimes (unsolved or wrongfully convicted) Cause, Location, Time of Death Paternity cases Cyber crimes Corporate Crimes (Enron) Voice Analysis IDENTIFY POTENTIAL SUSPECTS WHOSE DNA MAY MATCH EVIDENCE LEFT AT CRIME SCENES EXONERATE PERSONS WRONGLY ACCUSED OF CRIMES IDENTIFY CRIME & CATSTROPHE VICITIMS ESTABLISH PATERNITY AND OTHER FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

Applications of Forensic Science Application of DNA as evidence Prevention vs. Reaction Catastrophes & Wars ID remains of victims (either civilian or soldiers) ex. Holocaust or Katrina Military & International Forensics Terrorism The search for WMD’s Stockpiled or stored weapons from past wars IDENTIFY POTENTIAL SUSPECTS WHOSE DNA MAY MATCH EVIDENCE LEFT AT CRIME SCENES EXONERATE PERSONS WRONGLY ACCUSED OF CRIMES IDENTIFY CRIME & CATSTROPHE VICITIMS ESTABLISH PATERNITY AND OTHER FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

Biological Evidence Limitations but very useful in answering some of the questions of suspicious deaths Is the body human? Who is the victim? What was cause of death? How long ago did the victim die? Did the victim die immediately or after period of time? Did the person die at the spot where the body was discovered? Did the person die of natural causes, an accident or criminal act? If the person was killed, who did it?

Biological Evidence Used in other types of investigations Wildlife crimes Miss-selling of animal products Food contamination Identification of genetically modified crops/food

The Forensic Test- ideal case Accurate: results stand up to scrutiny of court Sensitive: to be able to deal with small samples Specific: no cross reactivity Quick: timely answers so it doesn’t impede investigation Simple: complicated tests are prone to mistakes Reliable and reproducible: to be repeated by other labs Affordable: expensive tests cannot be used routinely Readily available equipment and reagents

The Forensic is Not…..