Constructing Citizenship for Noncitizens Ming H. Chen Associate Professor, University of Colorado Law and Political Science Director, Immigration Law & Policy Program September 2017

Book Project: Constructing Citizenship for Noncitizens Membership asymmetry: How does enforcement relate to immigrant incorporation and notions of citizenship for noncitizens? Chapter 1 Noncitizens or Semi-Citizens? Chapter 2 Spectrum of Citizenship Statuses Chapter 3 Sites of Citizenship Chapter 4 Defensive Citizenship Chapter 5 Citizenship for Noncitizens

Chapter Summary: Defensive Citizenship Becoming a Citizen: Naturalization (Formal Citizenship) as Membership Empirical Study of Immigrants Seeking Citizenship in Current Climate Naturalization outcomes Interviews with LPRs, refugees, and noncitizens in military Implications of Defensive Citizenship? Partly explains uptick in naturalization rates during hostile political climate However, the instrumental benefit is offset by degraded meaning of citizenship. This has negative effects for the individual, for society, and ultimately for enforcement efforts.

Naturalization: Formal Citizenship Status as Membership Pathways to citizenship US-born Naturalized Pathways to Citizenship LPRs generally (green card) Refugees Noncitizens in military US = laissez faire approach mostly

Empirical Study of Naturalization as Membership Naturalization outcomes Approximately 50% naturalize Rise to 58% over last decade Trend holds across immigrant categories Interviews with immigrants [n=25] General LPRs Refugees Noncitizens in military

Overall LPR Results Question: What factors influence pursuit of citizenship? Themes from interviews and citizenship scholarship Ability to travel/ right to U.S. passport Eligibility for immigration-related and collateral benefits Fostering a sense of identity, membership as belonging Civic participation / voting / dissent* Fearing immigration enforcement/Avoiding deportation*

Refugees and Asylum-Seeker Results “I still consider myself a refugee, even though I have citizenship. That does not get left behind.” Naturalize at high rates (90%+) Reasons because it is the “next step,” because I need a safe place Formal membership, without substantive belonging Ambivalence toward contemporary political climate Fear: “Refugees know what happens in worst case scenarios” Gratitude: “We are finally legal humans… but we did not choose the U.S.”

Noncitizens in Military and Deported Vets “I’m more American than you because I fought for this country.” Naturalize at high rates (13% more likely than similar nonmilitary) though administrative challenges, vetting delays, deportation Challenging formal definitions of citizenship I was already American before getting official citizenship. Lacking or losing formal citizenship does not change the result Declining integrative potential of substantive citizenship / feeling American

Implications of Defensive Citizenship? Structure and climate both matter to membership (proxy naturalization) Substantive and formal citizenship can diverge (refugees v. vets) Refugees feeling like outsiders despite formal status Vets feeling Americans, discounting formal citizenship…. at great cost Good or bad? Thin v. thick citizenship: positive outcomes, if we think citizenship is good The instrumental benefit is offset by degraded meaning of citizenship. This has negative effects for the individual, for society, and ultimately for enforcement efforts.

Future Directions for Research Sharpening the theoretical argument Connecting to book’s theme of membership Focus on formal citizenship as a facet of full membership Influence of political climate v. other explanations for naturalization Questions: Is defensive citizenship as undesireable as a I make it out to be? Is this a unique moment among hostile political climates? Strengthening the research design and empirical data Comparisons across general LPR, refugees, military High tech workers (H1-B and EB immigration) DACA and undocumented immigrants (lacking pathway to integration) Preview of policy prescriptions (Chapter 5/Conclusion)