Shiva Chapter 16: India and the Indian Ocean Basin

Overview The Indian Ocean basin developed into a vast zone of communication and exchange China and southeast Asian states on one side, African city-states on the other side and India in the middle.

Overview During the postclassical period there emerged in India no long-lasting imperial authority, as there were in China and the Islamic world. Regional kingdoms were the norm. Nevertheless, Indian society exerted a profound influence on the cultures of south and Southeast Asia. Through the extensive trade networks of the Indian Ocean basin, Indian forms of political organization, religion, and economic practices spread throughout the region. Several developments in India during this era gradually spread throughout the larger culture zone.

Overview Dramatic agricultural growth fueled population growth and urbanization. These phenomena, combined with specialized industrial production and trade, resulted in unprecedented economic growth for the region.

Overview India's central position in the Indian Ocean basin resulted in it becoming a major clearinghouse for products of the voluminous maritime trade network that encompassed east Africa, Arabia, Persia, Southeast Asia, and Malaysia as well as the entire Indian subcontinent.

Overview Islam originally appeared in India through a variety of conduits, and it eventually became the primary religion of one quarter of the population. From India, Islam, along with Hinduism and Buddhism, spread to Southeast Asia and the nearby islands

India after the Fall of The Gupta Dynasty Invasion of White Huns from Central Asia beginning 451 CE Gupta State collapsed mid-6th c. Chaos in northern India Local power struggles Invasions of Turkish nomads, absorbed into Indian society

Hinduism and Buddhism and architecture Dedicated to Vishnu. Angkor Wat (Cambodia) portrays the Hindu cosmology, with the central towers representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond. Later made Buddhist 12th century

Role of the Caste Caste provided guidance in absence of centralized political authority Caste helped to integrate immigrants (Turks, Muslim merchants) into Indian society

Religion in India Hinduism predominated in southern India, Islam in the north Vishnu and Shiva Decline of Buddhism benefited Hinduism The growth of Vishnu and Shiva cults (and other gods associated with them) Devotional cults: to achieve mystic union with gods as a way of salvation Shankara: philosopher (ninth century) who preferred disciplined logical reasoning Ramanuja: philosopher (eleventh and twelfth centuries) believed that understanding of ultimate reality was less important than devotion

Religion in India How would Vishnu and Shiva cults assist in the adoption of Islam in India?

King Harsha (r. 606-648 CE) Temporary restoration of unified rule in north India Religiously tolerant Buddhist by faith Generous support for poor Patron of the arts Wrote three plays Assassinated, no successor able to retain control

Harsha's empire at its greatest extent.

Introduction of Islam to Northern India Arabs conquer Sind (north-west India), 711 Sind stood at the fringe of the Islamic world held by Abbasid dynasty to 1258

Islam and India Conversion to Islam occurred in a slow and gradual way Helped by sufis and bhakti movement (sought to erase differences between Islam and Hinduism) Some converted for improving their lower social statuses Often an entire caste or sub caste adopted Islam en masse By 1500, about 25 million Indian Muslims (1/4 of population) Sufis The most effective missionaries, they had a devotional approach to Islam Permitted followers to observe old rituals and venerate old spirits Emphasized piety and devotion The bhakti movement Sought to erase distinction between Hinduism and Islam Guru Kabir (1440-1518), important bhakti teacher, taught that Shiva, Vishnu, and Allah were one deity

Merchants and Islam Arabic trade with India predates Islam Dominated trade between India and the west to 15th century Established local communities in India Port city of Cambay

Mahmud of Ghazni Leader of the Turks in Afghanistan Raids into India, 1001-1027 Plunders, destroys Hindu and Buddhist temples Often builds mosques atop ruins

The Sultanate of Delhi Consolidation of Mahmud’s raiding territory Capital: Delhi Ruled northern India 1206-1526 Weak administrative structure Reliance on cooperation of Hindu kings 19 out of 35 Sultans assassinated

Historical map of the Delhi sultanate

Hindu Kingdoms of Southern India Major states of Postclassical India 600-1600 CE Chola Kingdom, 850-1267 Maritime power Not highly centralized Kingdom of Vijayanagar Mid-fourteenth century - 1565 Northern Deccan Originally supported by Sultanate of Delhi Leaders renounce Islam in 1336 Yet maintain relations with Sultantate

Agriculture in the Monsoon World Spring/summer: rains, wind from south-west Fall/winter: dry season, wind from north-east Seasonal irrigation crucial to avoid drought, famine Especially southern India Massive construction of reservoirs, canals, tunnels Hindu temples often helped with these projects

Dhow--They often sail south with the monsoon in winter or early spring, and back again to Arabia in late spring or early summer.

Junk from China—similar to Dhows

The trading world of the Indian Ocean basin, 600-1600 CE—best time to travel = December

Population Growth in India

Trade and Economic Development in Southern India Indian regional economies largely self-sufficient Certain products traded throughout subcontinent Iron, copper, salt, pepper, cotton textiles Southern India profits from political instability in north

Temples and Indian Society More than religious centers Center of coordination of irrigation, other agricultural work Some Temples had large landholdings Education providers Banking services

Cross-Cultural Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin Trade increases in post-classical period Larger ships Dhows, junks Improved organization of agricultural efforts Establishment of Emporia Cosmopolitan port cities serve as warehouses for trade Specialized products developed (cotton, high-carbon steel)

The Kingdom of Axum Example of trade-driven development Founded in the highlands of northern Ethiopia about 1st c. CE Adopted Christianity Resisted Islam, likely due to prosperity through trade Displaces Kush as Egyptian link to the south Axum destroys Kushan capital Meroë c. 360 CE Major territorial expansion to late 6th c.

The Kingdom of Axum (Aksum) Port of Adulis

Obelisk at Axum Stone obelisk towers served to mark graves or represent a magnificent building.

Challenges to Caste and Society Migrations Growth of Islam Urbanization Economic development Development of Jati (subcastes) Similar to worker’s guilds Caste system expands from north to south Promoted by Temples, educational system

Decline of Buddhism Buddhism displaced as Turkish invasions destroy holy sites, temples 1196 Muslim forces destroy library of Nalanda Thousands of monks exiled

Development of Hinduism Growth of devotional cults Esp. Vishnu, Shiva Promise of salvation Especially popular in southern India, spreads to north

Images of Vishnu From Around the World

Images of Shiva From Around the World

Devotional Philosophers Shankara, Brahmin philosopher of 9th c. CE Devotee of Shiva Synthesized Hindu writings in Platonic form Preferred rigorous logical analysis to emotional devotion Ramanuja, Brahmin philosopher 11th-early 12th c. Challenges Shankara’s emphasis on intellect Laid philosophical foundations of contemporary Hinduism

Conversion to Islam 25 million converts by 1500 (1/4 of total population) Possibilities of social advancement for lower-caste Hindus Rarely achieved: whole castes or jatis convert, social status remains consistent

Sufis Personal, emotional, devotional approaches to Islam Important missionaries of Islam to India Some flexibility regarding local customs

The Bhakti Movement Attempt to bring Hinduism and Islam closer together 12th c. southern Hindu movement, spread to north Guru Kabir (1440-1518) Taught that Shiva, Vishnu, Allah all manifestations of one Deity Largely unsuccessful

Indian Influence in Southeast Asia Influence dates from 500 BCE Evidence of Indian ideas and traditions Kingship Religions (Hinduism, Buddhism) Literature Caste system not as influential

Early States of Southeast Asia Early states of southeast Asia: Funan and Srivijaya, 100-1025 CE Funan Lower Mekong River, 1st-6th c. CE Kingdom of Srivijaya Centered in Sumatra, 670-1025 CE Kingdom of Angkor Cambodia, 889-1431 CE Magnificent religious city complexes

. Later states of Southeast Asia: Angkor, Singosari, and Majapahit, 889 – 1520 CE

Islam in Southeast Asia Early populations of Muslim traders Increasing popularity with Sufi activity Many convert, retain some Hindu or Buddhist traditions Caste system never became part of Southeast Asia prior to Islam

State of Melaka (Malaysia) Founded late 14th c. CE by rebellious prince of Sumatra Powerful=Dominated maritime trade routes Differentiated from other Indianized states in SouthEast Asia because: Mid-15th ce. converts to Islam

Melaka

India SPICE