Cognition: Thinking and Language Chapter 8

Cognition Refers to the way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing. Includes: Memory, Thinking, and Language Mental processes

Thinking The mental process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively. Forming Concepts Problem Solving Decision Making Critical Thinking Creativity

Concept A mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics. The concept of a chair has common features: four legs seat back Prototype: The first example of a concept that comes to mind.

Steps in Problem Solving Find and Frame Problems Develop Good Problem Solving Strategies Sub-goals: Intermediate goals or problems that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution. Algorithms and Heuristics Evaluate Solutions Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions over Time

Problem Solving There are two ways to solve problems: Algorithms: strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem. Methodical, logical rules, or procedures that guarantee a solution Very time consuming Heuristics: shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer. Simple; rules-of-thumb; shortcuts Less time consuming, but more error-prone 2 kinds of heuristics: representativeness and availabilty

Problems The Candle Problem The Nine-Dot Problem The Six-Matchstick Problem

Problem Solving Obstacles Fixation: Using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective. When we are unable to see a problem from a different perspective it hinders problem solving Mental Set: Tendency to approach a problem in a certain way, because that method worked before. Rigidity Functional Fixedness: Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s unusual functions. What is my favorite tool?

Functional Fixedness NASA wanted a way for astronauts to write notes in space The problem was pens need gravity for the ink to flow After many years and millions of dollars, NASA discovered a new fluid that would allow astronauts to write in space How did the Russian’s solve this same problem?

Decision Making Reasoning: The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions. Inductive Reasoning: Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations. Deductive Reasoning: Reasoning from general case that is known to be true to a specific instance. Decision Making: The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them.

Framing Decisions Refers to the way an issue is presented or posed. Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected by how an issue is framed Would you rather hear that 90% of the population will be saved by a new medication or that 10% of the population will die despite this medication?

Decision Making Obstacles Confirmation bias Base rate fallacy Hindsight bias Representative heuristics Availability heuristics Overconfidence Belief Perseverance

Confirmation Bias The tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them.

Base Rate Fallacy The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information.

Hindsight Bias The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome. “I knew it all along effect!”

Representativeness Heuristic The tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information.

Availability Heuristic A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imaging similar events. We assume whatever is easiest to remember is what happens most often Factors that influence this: How recently we have heard about the event How distinct it is

Overconfidence The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Belief Perseverance The tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.

Critical Thinking Means thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence. Metacognition: The awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. Mindfulness: The state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities. Open-mindedness: The state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things.

Creative Thinking Creativity: The ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems. Divergent thinking: Thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem. Brainstorming Convergent thinking: Thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem. The best answer Creative thinkers use both types of thinking. Inventions