3.2 English morphemes 3.2.1 Morphology(形态学) The study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.

3.2.1 Morphemes The smallest unit of meaning in English in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. One morpheme------nation two morphemes----- nation+al three morphemes----nation+al+ize four morphemes-----de+nation +al +ize more than four morphemes---- de+nation+al+iz+ation

Case study 1 Purify Pur(e) + -ify A rule: a new form of verb can be created by adding –ify to an adjective. Amplify, simplify, electrify, falsify, etc. What about –ify being added to a noun? class—classify, beauty—beautify, glory--glorify

3.2.2 Types of morphemes (1) Free vs. Bound morphemes: Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-. Mono-morphemic and poly-morphemic words Eg. 1)Dog, nation, close, Otaku, etc. 2)moonwalk, babysit, god father, wechat, hide-and-seek, .

(2) affix morphemes and root morphemes Affix: the type of formation that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into prefix (dis-, un-) and suffix (-en, -ify).

(3)Root: the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main meaning of the word. It cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness. Roots may be free: those that can stand by themselves, eg black+board; nation; or bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.

3.2.3 Types of morphemes stem A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflection affix can be added. eg. Friend in friends; friendship in friendships Note: a stem may be the same as a root, whereas a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.

Job+s, desir+ed, sitt+ing, etc. 1. Stem + Root Affix stem Job+s, desir+ed, sitt+ing, etc.

Unlock+ed, un+desirable+s 1. Stem + + Root Affix1 Affix2 Stem Unlock+ed, un+desirable+s

de+nation+al+iz(e) +ed 1. Stem + + + + Root Affix1 Affix2 Affixn-1 Affixn stem de+nation+al+iz(e) +ed

1. Stem + + Root Root Affix Stem Greenhouse+s

3.2.3 Types of morphemes A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional affixes are added to it: in the part of the word-formation which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.

2. Base A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; it may also be defined as “a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied.” Distinction between base and root A base is derivationally analysable form to which derivational affixes are added, while a root is a form which permits no further analysis. E.g. Greenhouses: base: greenhouse VS root: green, house

2. Base Distinction between base and stem Both derivational and inflectional affixes can be added to a base, whereas only inflectional affixes can be added to a stem. E.g. 1. Desirable Base: desire root: desire a suffix –able is added to “desire”, while desire is also the root because it is not further analyzable. 2. Undesirable Base: desirable; root :desire

2. Base Figure (1) + desire able unanalysable root Derivational suffix

2. Base + Derivational prefix Analysable base un desirable Figure (2)

2. Base + stem/base Inflectional suffix undesirable s Figure (3)

3.2.3 Types of morphemes Figure (4) + Inflectional suffix root /stem/ base desire d Figure (4)

(3) Derivational morphemes Derivational morphemes (derivational affixes): they are so called because when they are added to another morpheme, they “derive” a new word. Eg. Re+write, mini+ car, super+market, modern+ize, careless+ness, worker.

(3) Derivational morphemes Many derivational morphemes have a special lexical meaning: e.g. --ism means “doctrine or point of view as in socialism; pro-means “on the side of” in pro-communist. Derivational morphemes have not only independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning. E.g. Pejorative meaning: misdeed, maltreat, pseudo-science Derogatory meaning: hireling, weakling, childish, bookish.

(4) Inflectional morphemes An inflectional morpheme serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed. E.g. Chairs, boxes; working, worked; slower, slowest.

The hierarchical structure of a word unsuitable (adj.) un- suitable (adj.) suit (v) -able

Topic for discussion Explain the following statement with example. Phoneme is the smallest meaningful unit of sound and morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in grammar.