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Section 1: What Is Research? Chapter Introduction Section 1: What Is Research? Section 2: Problems and Solutions in Research Section 3: Statistical Evaluation Chapter Menu

Chapter Objectives · Section 1 What Is Research? Describe the process in which psychologists approach a research issue and conduct the research to test a hypothesis, solve a problem, or confirm previous research. Chapter Preview 1

Chapter Objectives · Section 2 Problems and Solutions in Research Discuss how psychologists must recognize and resolve errors as they conduct research. Chapter Preview 2

Chapter Objectives · Section 3 Statistical Evaluation Recognize that psychologists must collect and evaluate evidence to support their hypotheses. Chapter Preview 3

Chapter Preview-End

Main Idea Psychologists must first decide how to approach the research issue. Then psychologists conduct the research in one of a variety of ways to test a hypothesis, solve a problem, or confirm previous findings. Section 1-Main Idea

Vocabulary sample naturalistic observation case study survey longitudinal study cross-sectional study correlation hypothesis variable experimental group control group Section 1-Key Terms

Objectives Describe the process of psychological research and the scientific method. Name the different types of psychological research. Section 1-Objectives

Section 1-Polling Question Which of the following do you think is the best method of research? A. naturalistic observation B. case study C. survey D. longitudinal study A B C D Section 1-Polling Question

Pre-Research Decisions Researchers begin by asking a specific question about a limited topic or hypothesis. Then they collect evidence. A sample is a relatively small group of the total population under study. A sample must be representative. Section 1

Pre-Research Decisions (cont.) Ways to avoid a nonrepresentative sample: Take a purely random sample. Deliberately pick individuals who represent the various subgroups in the population being studied, also known as a stratified sample. Jane Goodall Section 1

Which of the following should a psychologist avoid using? A. random sample B. nonrepresentative sample C. stratified sample D. representative sample A B C D Section 1

Methods of Research The goals of research are to: Describe behavior Explain its causes Predict the circumstances under which certain behaviors may occur again To control certain behaviors Section 1

Methods of Research (cont.) Methods of research used to accomplish these goals: Naturalistic observations Case studies Surveys Longitudinal Studies Cross-Sectional Studies Correlations Experiments A Correlation Study Section 1

Methods of Research (cont.) Every experiment has: hypothesis variables (independent and dependent) experimental group control group Experimental Research Section 1

Methods of Research (cont.) Ethics are the methods of conduct, or standards, for proper and responsible behavior. The APA has a list of ethical principles that psychologists must follow. Section 1

What is the importance of a control group? A. It exhibits change during an experiment. B. It affects the results in the experimental group. C. It allows for a comparison to identify changes in the experimental group. D. None of the above. A B C D Section 1

Section 1-End

Main Idea The investigation of psychological issues is a painstaking process. Psychologists must recognize and resolve errors while doing research. Section 2-Main Idea

Vocabulary self-fulfilling prophecy single-blind experiment double-blind experiment placebo effect Section 2-Key Terms

Objectives Summarize the methodological hazards of doing research. Examine experimental procedures psychologists use to avoid bias. Section 2-Objectives

Section 2-Polling Question Do you think that expectations of behavior affect actual behavior? A. Yes B. No A B Section 2-Polling Question

Problems and Solutions in Research A self-fulfilling prophecy is a situation in which a researcher’s expectations influence that person’s own behavior, and thereby influence the participant’s behavior. Section 2

Avoiding a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Ways to avoid self-fulfilling prophecy: Single-blind experiment Double-blind experiment Single-Blind and Double-Blind Experiments Section 2

Do you agree or disagree that humans often have preconceived notions about what will happen in a situation? A. Agree B. Disagree C. Not sure A B C Section 2

The Milgram Experiment In the 1960s, Stanley Miligram wanted to determine whether participants would administer painful shocks to others merely because an authority figure had instructed them to do so. The result implied that ordinary individuals could easily inflict pain on others if such orders were issued by a respected authority. Section 2

The Milgram Experiment (cont.) His experiment, although no one was actually shocked, was controversial. Today, experiments are required to submit a plan to a Human Subjects Committee. Section 2

Do you believe that Miligram’s decision to use volunteers as he did was ethical or unethical? A. Ethical B. Unethical C. Not sure A B C Section 2

The Placebo Effect The placebo effect is a change in a participant’s illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect rather than from the actual treatment. Section 2

Do you think that is ethical to use a placebo in an experiment? A. Yes B. No C. Not sure A B C Section 2

Section 2-End

Main Idea Psychologists must collect and evaluate evidence to support their hypotheses. Section 3-Main Idea

Vocabulary statistics descriptive statistics frequency distribution normal curve central tendency variability standard deviation correlation coefficient inferential statistics Section 3-Key Terms

Objectives Recognize types of descriptive statistics. Describe inferential statistics. Section 3-Objectives

Section 3-Polling Question In your opinion, in which way are statistics more likely to be used? A. To distort the truth B. To honestly to support a hypotheses A B Section 3-Polling Question

Statistical Evaluation Statistics consist of the branch of mathematics concerned with summarizing and making meaningful inferences from collections of data. Kate’s Data Section 3

Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics involve the listing and summarizing of data in a practical, efficient way. One of the first steps that researchers take to organize their data is to create frequency tables and graphs. Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.) A frequency distribution is a way of arranging data so that we know how often a particular score or observation occurs. A Frequency Distribution Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.) Types of graphs: Histogram Frequency polygon/frequency curve A Frequency Polygon Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.) A normal curve is a graph of frequency distribution shaped like a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve. A Normal Curve Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.) A common way of summarizing is to measure the central tendency. Distributions also differ in their variability. Measure of Central Tendency Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.) Two commonly used measures of variability are: Range Standard deviation Standard Deviation Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.) Standard devaiation is a better measure because it uses all of the data points. A correlation coefficient describes the direction and strength of the relationship between two sets of observations. The most commonly used measure is the Pearson correlation coefficient (r). Section 3

Descriptive Statistics (cont.) A coefficient with a plus sign (+) indicates a positive correlation. A coefficient with a minus sign (–) indicates a negative coefficient. A scatterplot is a graph of scores that demonstrates the direction of the relationship between two variables. A Scatterplot Section 3

In relation to class test scores, which of the following do you think is more descriptive? A. An average of 84 B. A median of 85 C. A mode of 79 A B C Section 3

Inferential Statistics Psychologists also want to make generalizations about the population from which the participants come, so they use inferential statistics. Inferential statistics are numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to change. Section 3

Inferential Statistics (cont.) Researchers must perform a variety of statistical tests, called measures of statistical significance, to determine that their results are not due to chance. For many traits in a large population, the frequency distribution follows the normal curve. Section 3

Inferential Statistics (cont.) Many researchers say that if the probability that their results were due to chance is less than 5%, they do not think the results were due to chance. The results would then be considered statistically significant. Section 3

A statistically significant result always represents an important finding. A. True B. False A B Section 3

Section 3-End

A Correlation Study These charts display possible correlations between different variables. Figure 1

Experimental Research Psychology is an experimental science. Psychologists follow the same general procedures when conducting experimental research. Figure 2

Single-Blind and Double-Blind Experiments Researcher’s must take measures during experimentation to guard against seeing only what they expect to see. Figure 3

Kate’s Data Kate’s data show the number of hours of television watched before and after the quiz, the grade on the quiz, the number of products recognized, and participants’ height in inches. * Highest grade possible is 10. Figure 4

A Frequency Distribution A frequency distribution shows how often a particular observation occurs. Figure 5

A Frequency Polygon This graph shows the number of hours of TV watched the night before the quiz and the night after the quiz. Figure 6

A Normal Curve The maximum frequency lies in the center of a range of scores in a perfect normal curve. The frequency tapers off as you reach the edges of the two sides. Figure 7

Measures of Central Tendency It is often useful to summarize a set of scores by identifying a number that represents the center, average, or most frequently occurring number of the distribution. Figure 8

Standard Deviation Two distributions with the same mean and different standard deviations are shown. Figure 9

A Scatterplot When there is little or no relationship between two variables, the points in the scatterplot do not seem to fall into any pattern. Figure 10

Jane Goodall 1934– “Every individual matters. Every individual has a role to play. Every individual makes a difference.” Profile

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sample: the small group of participants, out of the total number available, that a researcher studies Vocab1

naturalistic observation: research method in which the psychologist observes the subject in a natural setting without interfering Vocab2

case study: research method that involves an intensive investigation of one or more participants Vocab3

survey: research method in which information is obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set of questions Vocab4

longitudinal study: research method in which data are collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same during development Vocab5

cross-sectional study: research method in which data are collected from groups of participants of different ages and compared so that conclusions can be drawn about differences due to age Vocab6

correlation: the measure of a relationship between two variables or sets of data Vocab7

hypothesis: an educated guess about the relationship between two variables Vocab8

variable: any factor that is capable of change Vocab9

experimental group: the group to which an independent variable is applied Vocab10

control group: the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group except that the experimental treatment (the independent variable) is not applied Vocab11

self-fulfilling prophecy: a situation in which a researcher’s expectations influence that person’s own behavior, and thereby influence the participant’s behavior Vocab12

single-blind experiment: an experiment in which the participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment Vocab13

double-blind experiment: an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment Vocab14

placebo effect: a change in a participant’s illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect rather than from the actual treatment Vocab15

statistics: the branch of mathematics concerned with summarizing and making meaningful inferences from collections of data Vocab16

descriptive statistics: the listing and summarizing of data in a practical, efficient way Vocab17

frequency distribution: an arrangement of data that indicates how often a particular score or observation occurs Vocab18

normal curve: a graph of frequency distribution shaped like a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve; a graph of normally distributed data Vocab19

central tendency: a number that describes something about the “average” score of a distribution Vocab20

variability: a measure of difference, or spread of data Vocab21

standard deviation: a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean Vocab22

correlation coefficient: describes the direction and strength of the relationship between two sets of variables Vocab23

inferential statistics: numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance Vocab24

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