1. Module 2 Research Methods
AP Psychology
Module 2
Research Methods

2. Limits of common sense and “hunches” in making decisions
Why can’t we just use this?
Common Mistakes with our thinking processes:
--hindsight bias
--overconfidence
--confirmation bias
--framing effect

3. Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along.
Only after Kerry won the Iowa Primary, did people begin to say that Dean was too liberal. What would people say about Kerry if Dean won?

4. Scientific Method Observe some aspect of the universe.
State hypothesis
Test prediction by research method.
Analyze results / Draw conclusions.
Modify the theory in the light of your results. - Replicate
Go to step 2. If needed
Can results be generalized?

5. Hypothesis Have operational definitions. Be replicable.
A tentative theory that has not yet been tested. (Predicted statement)
Have operational definitions.
a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables
Example:
--How are you defining intelligence for your study?
Be replicable.

6. Types of Research
Descriptive
Correlational
Experimental

7. Types of Descriptive Research
The Case Study
The Survey
Naturalistic Observation

8. The Case Study Where one person (or situation) is observed in depth.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a tragedy like the Columbine School Shootings as a case study?

9. The Survey Method
Used in both descriptional and correlational research.
Use Interview, mail, phone, internet etc…
The Good- cheap, anonymous, diverse population, and easy to get random sampling (a sampling that represents your population you want to study).

10. Survey Method: The Bad Low Response Rate
People Lie or just misinterpret themselves.
Wording Effects
How accurate would a survey be about the frequency of picking your nose?

11. Why do we sample?
Need large enough to reflect target population- ways to do this?
One reason is the False Consensus Effect: the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
Overgeneralize to target pop. - usu. Due to limited observation

12. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in natural environment.
No control- just an observer.
What are the benefits and detriments of Naturalistic Observation?

13. Correlational Research
Detects relationships between variables.
Does NOT say that one variable causes another.
There is a positive correlation between ice cream and murder rates. Does that mean that ice cream causes murder?

14. Measured using a correlation coefficient.
A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors relate to one another

15. How to Read a Correlation Coefficient

16. Correlation Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship
the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
little scatter indicates high correlation

17. Height and Temperament of 20 Men
Correlation
Height and Temperament of 20 Men 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 80 63 61 79 74 69 62 75 77 60 64 76 71 66 73 70 68 90 42 81 39 48 72 57 30 84
Subject
Height in
Inches
Temperament

18. Scatterplot of Height and Temperament
Correlation 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25
Temperament
scores
Height in inches
Scatterplot of Height and Temperament

20. Experimental Research
Explores cause and effect relationships.
Headaches
Eating too many bananas causes

21. Steps in Designing an Experiment
Hypothesis
Pick Population: Random Selection then Random Assignment.
Operationalize the Variables
Identify Independent and Dependent Variables.
Look for Extraneous Variables
Type of Experiment: Blind, Double Blind etc..
Gather Data
Analyze Results

22. Experimental Vocabulary
Independent Variable: factor that is manipulated
Dependent Variable: factor that is measured
Confounding/Extraneous Variables: factors that effect DV, that are not IV.
Experimental Group: Group exposed to IV
Control Group: Group not exposed to IV
Placebo: inert substance that is in place of IV in Control Group

23. Experimentation Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance
minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups

24. Analyze Results
Use measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode).
Use measures of variation (range and standard deviation).

25. A Skewed Distribution
Are the results positively or negatively skewed?

27. Measures of Variability
Range - the difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of data
Standard deviation - reflects the average distance between every score and the mean

28. Statistics and Probability
Probability means how likely something is
How likely are results like mine to occur by chance?
Statistical inferences
significant result - reflects the real world rather than chance, with high probability (e.g., > .95 )
not significant - results reflect chance

29. Sources of Bias Observer-expectancy effect Subject-expectancy effect
researcher has expectations that influence measurements
Subject-expectancy effect
subject knows design and tries to produce expected result
Blinding
minimize expectancy by removing knowledge about experimental conditions

30. Blinding
Single-blind study - when subjects are kept uninformed as to the treatment they are receiving
Double-blind study - when both subjects and experimenter are kept uninformed about aspects of the study that could lead to differential expectations

31. Ethical Issues in Psychological Research
Right to privacy
Informed consent
use of deception
Animal rights
Is there justification for discomfort or harm a research procedure may produce?
APA publishes ethical guidelines