Unit 7: Cognition

Unit 7: Cognition

Unit 07 - Overview Studying and Building Memories Memory Storage and Retrieval Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Memory Improvement Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity Solving Problems and Making Decisions Thinking and Language Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.

Module 31: Studying and Building Memories

Studying Memory

Studying Memory Memory Extremes of memory the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage and retrieval of information. Extremes of memory

Studying Memory Memory Models Encoding Storage Retrieval Parallel processing

Studying Memory Memory Models Encoding the processing of information into the memory systems – for example, by extracting meaning. Encoding is the translation of information into a form that can be stored in memory. For computers and the human brain, encoding is the first stage in processing information. Storage the process of retaining encoded information over time. Storage is the second process of memory, the maintenance of encoded information over a period of time. Maintenance rehearsal- repeating information over and over again to keep from forgetting it. Elaborative rehearsal- make new info meaningful by relating it to info you already know well.

Studying Memory Memory Models Retrieval the process of getting information out of memory storage. Parallel processing the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Atkinson and Shiffrin Theory Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Sensory memory the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. Is the first step for external events. It is a split second holding tank for incoming sensory information. Most of the information here is not encoded.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Short-term memory activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored or forgotten. Everything you are thinking right now is held in your short-term memory. They are temporary If we do nothing with them they usually fade in 10 to 30 seconds. Is limited to hold around 7 items

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Long-term memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. Our long term memory holds a capacity that is not yet known to man. What we do know is that it contains vast numbers of videos and films of out lifetime of experience. All of them are in color, and all of them have stereo sound. But again, we just don’t know how much we know.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory Working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Studying Memory Memory Models: Working Memory

Building Memories: Encoding

Explicit memory (declarative memory) Effortful processing Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus Automatic Processing Explicit memory (declarative memory) Effortful processing Automatic processing Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus Automatic Processing Explicit memory memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory) Effortful processing encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus Automatic Processing unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. Implicit memory retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory) Implicit memory are things that are implied, or not clearly stated. These memories consist of the skills or procedures you have learned. Examples- riding a bike, skipping rope, driving a car etc.

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Automatic Processing and Implicit Memories Space Time Frequency

Effortful processing Sensory Memory Iconic memory Echoic memory Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories Effortful processing Sensory Memory Iconic memory Echoic memory

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories Iconic memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. Echoic memory a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Magic number Seven Plus or minus 2 Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Capacity of Short-Term and Working Memory Magic number Seven Plus or minus 2

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Effortful Processing Strategies Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Effortful Processing Strategies Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Effortful Processing Strategies Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Effortful Processing Strategies Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Effortful Processing Strategies Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Effortful Processing Strategies Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Effortful Processing Strategies Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Effortful Processing Strategies Mnemonics memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. Visual imagery Peg word system ROY G BIV Acronym - HOMES

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Effortful Processing Strategies Hierarchies

Testing effect Overlearning Spacing effect Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Distributed Practice Testing effect enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. Overlearning Spacing effect the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. Massed practice Distributed practice

Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Levels of Processing Shallow processing encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words. Deep processing encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

Making material meaningful Self-reference effect Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories: Making Material Personally Meaningful Making material meaningful Self-reference effect

Module 32: Memory Storage and Retrieval

Memory Storage

Memory Storage Retaining Information in the Brain Memories are NOT stored in one part of the brain. Memory has an amazing capacity , but attention issues, prior knowledge, and memory decay interfere with the actual memories that are stored.

Memory Storage Retaining Information in the Brain: Explicit-Memory System: The Frontal Lobes and Hippocampus Hippocampus The brain’s equivalent of the save button for explicit memories Amnesia (memory loss) Damage to either hemisphere Consolidation during sleep (memories are replaying as they transfer to long-term storage

Memory Storage Retaining Information in the Brain: Implicit-Memory System: The Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia Cerebellum- (Forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning.) Basal Ganglia- (facilitates formation of our procedural memories for skills.) Infantile amnesia- our conscious memory of our first 3 years are blank. (Index much of our explicit memories using words and the hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature.

Memory Storage The Amygdala, Emotions, and Memory Amygdala (emotion-related memory formation) Flashbulb Memories

Flashbulb Memories Flashbulb Memories a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. Where were you September 11, 2001? Name or think of a Flashbulb memory.

Flashbulb Memories In this cartoon, each of the forest animals remember their whereabouts when they heard that Bambi's mother had been shot. The news did not affect them personally, but the event was significant enough that they each recalled what they were doing when they heard about the event. A quote from the caption, "To this very day," suggests that Bambi's mother was shot some time ago, and still forest animals can recall their personal situation at the time. This also demonstrates that flashbulb memories are extremely long lasting.

Memory Storage Synaptic Changes Aplysia (sea slug that has increased our understanding of the neural basis of learning) Long-term potentiation an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. Mild neurocognitive disorders Alzheimer’s

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Memory Storage

Retrieval: Getting Information Out

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Measuring Retention Recall Recognition Relearning

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Measuring Retention Recall a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learning earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. Recognition a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. Relearning a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Priming the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Priming the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Priming the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Context-Dependent Memory Context-Dependent Memory- information that is more easily retrieved in context in which it was encoded and stored Example- hearing a song that reminds you of a time that has past but always brings back those memories Context effects

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Context-Dependent Memory

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Context-Dependent Memory

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Context-Dependent Memory

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Context-Dependent Memory

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Context-Dependent Memory

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Context-Dependent Memory

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: State-Dependent Memory State-dependant memory- memories in which info is more easily retrieved when one is in the same physiological or emotional state as when the memory was originally encoded Example- feelings of happiness can bring back other happy memories or feelings of sadness bring forth other sad memories. Mood congruent memory the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

Recency effect Primacy effect Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Serial Position Effect Serial position effect our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list. Recency effect Primacy effect

Primacy Effect Recency Effect Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues: Serial Position Effect Primacy Effect When we try to remember a series of letters or numbers our memories of the first and last items tend to be sharper than our memories of the middle letters. The tendency to recall initial items in a series of items Why would this be?? First and last are repeated more? Fresh mind? Etc. Recency Effect The tendency to record the last items in a series is called the recency effect. Why would this be? These items are rehearsed most recently and tend to be fresher in our memory.

Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Memory Improvement

Forgetting

Forgetting is the flip side of Memory Forgetting can occur at any one of the three stages of memory Remember sensory memory does not last long unless moved to short-term memory and short-term disappears in 10-12 seconds unless it makes it way into long-term memory.

Forgetting Forgetting and the Two-Track Mind Amnesia is severe memory loss caused by brain injury, shock, fatigue, illness, repression, or psychological trauma. Anterograde amnesia Retrograde amnesia

Forgetting Forgetting and the Two-Track Mind Anterograde amnesia an inability to form new memories. Retrograde amnesia an inability to retrieve information from one’s past. In Retrograde Amnesia people forget the period leading up to a traumatic event. Example- People in a car accident don’t remember they were in a car before the accident.

Forgetting Encoding Failure

Forgetting Encoding Failure

Forgetting Encoding Failure

Forgetting Storage Decay DECAY is the fading away of memory. Many times forgetting is due to interference or DECAY. -Ebbinghaus curve

Forgetting Storage Decay

Forgetting Storage Decay

Forgetting Retrieval Failure

Forgetting Retrieval Failure

Forgetting Retrieval Failure

Forgetting Retrieval Failure: Interference Proactive interference (forward acting) Retroactive interference (backward-acting)

Forgetting Retrieval Failure: Interference Proactive interference (forward acting) the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. Retroactive interference (backward-acting) the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Forgetting Retrieval Failure: Motivated Forgetting Self-serving personal histories Repression According to Freud we sometimes forget things on purpose without even knowing that we are doing it. Example- forgetting things that are unpleasant, painful or cause anxiety, guilt or shame.

Forgetting Retrieval Failure: Motivated Forgetting Self-serving personal histories Repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Forgetting Retrieval Failure: Motivated Forgetting Self-serving personal histories Repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Forgetting Retrieval Failure: Motivated Forgetting Self-serving personal histories Repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Memory Construction Errors

Memory Construction Errors Misinformation and Imagination Effects Loftus memory studies Misinformation effect incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.

Memory Construction Errors Source Amnesia Source amnesia (source misattribution) Déjà vu “already seen”

Memory Construction Errors Source Amnesia Source amnesia (source misattribution) attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. Déjà vu that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

Memory Construction Errors Discerning True and False Memories Memory studies Children eyewitness recall

Memory Construction Errors Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse? Areas of agreement Sexual abuse happens Injustice happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are incomplete Memories before 3 years are unreliable Hypnotic memories are unreliable Memories can be emotionally upsetting

Improving Memory

Improving Memory Rehearse repeatedly Make the material meaningful Activate retrieval cues Use mnemonic devices Minimize interference Sleep more Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know

Module 34: Thinking, Cognition, and Creativity

Thinking and Concepts

Thinking and Concepts Cognition (thinking) Concepts Prototypes

Thinking and Concepts Cognition (thinking) Concepts Prototypes the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. Concepts a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. Prototypes a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).

Creativity

Creativity Creativity Convergent thinking Divergent thinking

Creativity Creativity Convergent thinking Divergent thinking the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. Convergent thinking narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. Divergent thinking expands the number of possible problem solutions (creativity thinking that diverges in different directions).

Creativity Sternberg’s five components of creativity Expertise Imaginative thinking skills A venturesome personality Intrinsic motivation A creative environment

Creativity Ways to boost creativity Develop your expertise Allow time for incubation Set aside time for the mind to roam freely Experience other cultures and ways of thinking

Module 35: Solving Problems and Making Decisions

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles Algorithms Step-by-step Heuristic Insight Confirmation bias Mental set

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles Algorithms Step-by-step a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier – but also more error-prone – use of heuristics. Heuristic a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. Insight a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles Confirmation bias a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. Mental set a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles

Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments

Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments Intuition an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. Automatic unreasoned feelings and thoughts Seat of their pants

The Representative Heuristic Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments The Representativeness Heuristic The Representative Heuristic judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. Prototype Likelihood of something Truck Driver versus a professor of classics at an Ivy League school.

The Availability Heuristic Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments The Availability Heuristic The Availability Heuristic estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments Overconfidence the tendency to be more confident than correct – to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Belief perseverance Framing Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments Belief Perseverance and Framing Belief perseverance clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they are formed has been discredited. Consider the opposite Framing the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments The Perils and Powers of Intuition an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. Intuition is huge Intuition is usually adaptive Intuition is recognition born of experience

Module 36: Thinking and Language

Introduction Language our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Language Structure

Language Structure Phoneme Morpheme in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. English about 40 phonemes Learning another language’s phonemes Morpheme in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word part. Includes prefixes and suffixes

Language Structure Grammar in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences. Semantics Syntax

Language Development

Language Development Receptive language Productive language Babbling stage One-word stage Two-word stage Telegraphic speech

Language Development Babbling stage Two-word stage Telegraphic speech beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language One-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. Two-word stage beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements. Telegraphic speech early speech state in which a child speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs.

Language Development

Language Development

Language Development

Language Development

Language Development

Language Development

Language Development Explaining Language Development Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar Language acquisition device Universal grammar

Language Development Explaining Language Development Statistical Learning and Critical Periods Statistical learning Critical (sensitive) period

The Brain and Language

The Brain and Language Aphasia Broca’s Area Wernicke’s Area

The Brain and Language Aphasia Broca’s Area impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding). Broca’s Area controls language expression – an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. Wernicke’s Area controls language reception – a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

Language and Thought

Language and Thought Language Influences Thinking Whorf’s linguistic determinism Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think. Bilingual advantage

Language and Thought Language Influences Thinking

The End

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Definition Slides

Memory = the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage and retrieval of information.

Encoding = the processing of information into the memory systems – for example, by extracting meaning.

Storage = the process of retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval = the process of getting information out of memory storage.

Parallel Processing = the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Sensory Memory = the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Short-Term Memory = activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored or forgotten.

Long-Term Memory = the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working Memory = a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Explicit Memory = memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory)

Effortful Processing = encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Automatic Processing = unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

Implicit Memory = retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory)

Iconic Memory = a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

Echoic Memory = a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Chunking = organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Mnemonics = memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Spacing Effect = the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Testing Effect = enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

Shallow Processing = encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.

Deep Processing = encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

Hippocampus = a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

Flashbulb Memory = a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) = an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Recall = a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learning earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition = a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

Relearning = a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Priming = the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

Mood Congruent Memory = the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

Serial Position Effect = our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.

Anterograde Amnesia = an inability to form new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia = an inability to retrieve information from one’s past.

Proactive Interference = the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference = the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Repression = in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Misinformation Effect = incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.

Source Amnesia = attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

Deja Vu = that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

Cognition = the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concept = a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Prototype = a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).

Creativity = the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Convergent Thinking = narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

Divergent Thinking = expands the number of possible problem solutions (creativity thinking that diverges in different directions).

Algorithm = a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier – but also more error-prone – use of heuristics.

Heuristic = a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

Insight = a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Confirmation Bias = a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Mental Set = a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

Intuition = an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

Representativeness Heuristic = judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

Availability Heuristic = estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence = the tendency to be more confident than correct – to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Belief Perseverance = clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they are formed has been discredited.

Framing = the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements.

Language = our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Phoneme = in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

Morpheme = in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

Grammar = in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

Babbling Stage = beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

One-Word Stage = the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Two-Word Stage = beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.

Telegraphic Speech = early speech state in which a child speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs.

Aphasia = impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).

Broca’s Area = controls language expression – an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wenicke’s Area = controls language reception – a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

Linguistic Determinism = Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.