English 9H

 A failure in reasoning that makes an argument invalid  Faulty reasoning; misleading or unsound argument

 Definition: Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually because it is atypical or just too small).  Stereotypes about people ("frat boys are drunkards," "grad students are nerdy," etc.) are a common example of the principle underlying hasty generalization.  Example: "My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one I'm in is hard, too. All philosophy classes must be hard!"  Two people's experiences are, in this case, not enough on which to base a conclusion.

 It is the use of derogatory language or words that carry a negative connotation when describing an enemy.  Name calling occurs often in politics and wartime scenarios, but hardly ever in advertising.  The propaganda attempts to arouse prejudice among the public by labeling the target something that the public dislikes.  Often, name calling is employed using sarcasm and ridicule, and shows up often in political cartoons.  When examining name calling propaganda, we should attempt to separate our feelings about the name and our feelings about the actual idea or proposal.

 An appeal to accept the truth of a conclusion out of pity for the arguer or some third party. Either the arguer (or someone else) is already an object of pity, or they will become one if the conclusion is not accepted.  If I don’t get at least a B in this course my GPA will drop below 2.0. If that happens I’ll lose my scholarship and have to quit school, so I ought to get a B in this course.

 A claim that an idea should be accepted because a large number of people favor it or believe it to be true.  Everyone knows that smoking marijuana is physically addictive and psychologically harmful.

 Testimonials are quotations or endorsements, by a famous or respectable person with a product or item.  Testimonials are very closely connected to the transfer technique, in that an attempt is made to connect an agreeable person to another item.  Testimonials are often used in advertising and political campaigns.  When coming across testimonials, the subject should consider the merits of the item or proposal independently of the person of organization giving the testimonial.

 The assumption that because one event follows another, the first is the cause of the second.  Since Governor Smith took office, unemployment for minorities in the state has decreased by seven percent. Governor Smith should be applauded for reducing unemployment among minorities.

A false dilemma asserts that a complex situation can have only two possible outcomes and that one of the options is necessary or preferable. Either go to college or forget about making money. This falsely implies that a college education is a pre-requisite for financial success.

 Ethical appeals ask you to do the right thing. When we believe that the speaker does not intend to do us harm, we are more willing to listen to what s/he has to say. Ethos involves credibility.  Is it asking you to do the right thing?  Will it help the greater good?  Advice from author or experts who know what they are writing about.  Does the author establish credibility and trustworthiness?

 Persuasive Effect: Demonstrates author’s reliability and competence. Shows respect for the audience’s ideas and moral values  For example, when a trusted doctor gives you advice, you may not understand all of the medical reasoning behind the advice, but you nonetheless follow the directions because you believe that the doctor knows what s/he is talking about. Likewise, when a judge comments on legal precedent audiences tend to listen because it is the job of a judge to know the nature of past legal cases.

 Pathos is an emotional appeal. They may appeal to any emotion: love, fear, patriotism, guilt, hate or joy.  Pathos is being used if there is…  Figurative language that stirs an audience’s feelings  Personal stories (anecdotes)  Personal beliefs (I think, I believe, I feel)  Words, phrases, or images that evoke fear, excitement, sadness, joy, etc. (aka Loaded Words)  Threats  Flattery  Calls to action  Whenever you accept an claim based on how it makes you feel without fully analyzing the rationale behind the claim, you are acting on pathos.

 Persuasive Effect: Evokes an emotional, sometimes irrational response.  Whenever you accept an claim based on how it makes you feel without fully analyzing the rationale behind the claim, you are acting on pathos.  Appeals to pathos touch a nerve and compel people to not only listen, but to also take the next step and act in the world.

 Logos: The Greek word logos is the basis for the English word logic.  Logos refers to any attempt to appeal to the intellect, the general meaning of "logical argument."  Logical appeals will use…  Facts  Statistics  Analogies  Definitions  References to history or the past  Quotes from experts and authorities  Cause and effect statements (If..., then…)  Research results

 Persuasive Effect: Evokes a rational, reasonable response. Can it be proven?  Everyday arguments rely heavily on ethos and pathos, but academic arguments rely more on logos. Yes, these arguments will call upon the writers' credibility and try to touch the audience's emotions, but there will more often than not be logical chains of reasoning supporting all claims.