Presented by: Claudia Otalor, Vanessa Idunoba, and Maral Rezvani June 17, 2014

Who was Aristotle? Aristotle, born 384 BCE, of northern Greece, was a student of Philosopher, Plato. His father, Nicomachus died when he was a child. He also had a son of the same name, of which it is believed his work on Nicomachean ethics, is believed to be dedicated to. He joined Plato’s Academy in Athens from the age of 18 to 34, before going on to write on various subjects in Western philosophy and science. In his philosophical work of Nicomachean ethics, we discover his meaning for true happiness.

What is Happiness ? “Happiness depends on ourselves.” More than anybody else, Aristotle enshrines happiness as a central purpose of human life and a goal in itself – “Often the lesser good promises immediate pleasure and is more tempting, while the greater good is painful and requires some sort of sacrifice.” “The function of man is to live a certain kind of life, and this activity implies a rational principle, and the function of a good man is the good and noble performance of these, and if any action is well performed it is performed in accord with the appropriate excellence: if this is the case, then happiness turns out to be an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.” “The function of man is to live a certain kind of life, and this activity implies a rational principle, and the function of a good man is the good and noble performance of these, and if any action is well performed it is performed in accord with the appropriate excellence: if this is the case, then happiness turns out to be an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.”

What is a Virtue? Virtue, then is a state of character concerned with choice lying in a mean, the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle, and by that principle by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it. Now it is a mean between two vices, that which depends o excess and that which depends on defect. And again it is a mean because the vices respectively fall short of or exceed what is right in both passions and actions, while virtue both finds and chooses that which is intermediate. Hence in respect of its substance and the definition which states its essence virtue is a mean which regard to what is best and right an extreme.

Doctrine on Mean The highest good for humans was what Aristotle called “eudemonia” or “having a good spirit”. Since virtue involves choice, then the correct choice was somewhere in the middle of two extremes. “The Mean” or as it is referred to the “Doctrine of the Mean” involves choice for the long-term qualities of a person. Mean Deficiency Extreme/Excess Courage Fear Foolhardiness Temperance Excessive abstinence Self-indulgence Poor temper Dishonor Arrogance Good pride Pollyannaish Irascibility

Human Action “All human actions have one or more of these seven causes: chance, nature, compulsion, habit, reason, passion, and desire.” - Aristotle - Aristotle Aristotle describes voluntary actions as those actions driven by an individual's ambition, passions or desires. "It is only voluntary feelings and actions for which praise and blame are given" (Book.III Ch.I). Praise and blame presuppose that our actions are done voluntarily. The person carrying out the act or the "doer" must also be aware of the particular circumstances in which he or she acts. Aristotle describes voluntary actions as those actions driven by an individual's ambition, passions or desires. "It is only voluntary feelings and actions for which praise and blame are given" (Book.III Ch.I). Praise and blame presuppose that our actions are done voluntarily. The person carrying out the act or the "doer" must also be aware of the particular circumstances in which he or she acts. Aristotle describes involuntary actions as those actions where the principle of the actions lie outside of the doer. When someone does something wrong because of an external agent, they are exempt from blame and punishment. "those [actions] that are involuntary are condoned, and sometimes even pitied"...

Voluntary vs. Involuntary To deserve praise/blame an action or passion must be voluntary. When is an action involuntary? Aristotle: if (1) it takes place by force; OR (2) it was done owing to ignorance Voluntary Actions - an act "originated by the doer with the knowledge of the particular circumstances of the act" (3.1, Solomon, 98) Example: tyrant orders you do to something disgraceful while holding your family and threatening to kill them if you do not do it. Involuntary Actions - an act done a) under compulsion or b) through ignorance when the agent does not understand the particular circumstances involved and is pained and sorry afterward Involuntary Actions - an act done a) under compulsion or b) through ignorance when the agent does not understand the particular circumstances involved and is pained and sorry afterward Example: talking about a subject not known to be forbidden, catapult discharged by mistake, mistake son for enemy or sharp spear for blunt one, killing a man with a drug intended to save him

Moral Virtue Aristotle’s theory of moral virtue contends that our ultimate purpose or goal in life should be to reach eudemonia(happiness, well being), but to do so requires our ability to function properly in our thoughts and actions according to our sense of reason and our innate understanding of moral virtues. Additionally, by using principles of both the intellectual (taught or learned) and moral virtue (which becomes habit upon practice and imitation) we must learn to make decisions that are right and just—not necessarily for our own personal benefit, but simply because we posses an understanding that something is the right course of action. Aristotle defines moral virtue as a disposition to behave in the right manner and as a mean between extremes of deficiency and excess, which are vices.

Intellectual Virtue

Intellectual Virtues

5 Intellectual Virtues Changing - Techne Technology or artistic knowledge ( Creating by introducing change into the world) - Phronesis Practical wisdom ( The reasoning behind doing something) Unchanging - Episteme Scientific Knowledge (logical reasoning process) - Nous Intellect. Ability to think or grasp 1 st principle. -Nous Intellect. Ability to think or grasp 1 st principle. - Sophia Philosophical wisdom (Combination of Nous and Episteme) -Sophia Philosophical wisdom (Combination of Nous and Episteme)

Practical and Theoretical Wisdom For all the virtues will be present when the one virtue, practical wisdom, is present. -Aristotle

Eudaimonia, Telos, & Relativity How does the soul relate to happiness? Aristotle believed that everyone ought to be virtuous, however, only apply those virtues appropriately in regard’s to one’s circumstance. To avoid extremes (vices or deficiencies), and exhibit a mean of moral excellence, is to be virtuous. Aristotle declared that finding the “highest virtue” of the soul, aims at the meaning of true happiness. What is the highest virtue of your soul? According to Aristotle, in that, you discover your true happiness.

Martha Nussbaum’s Non- Relative Virtues Nussbaum is an author influenced by Aristotle. In her article, she is able to describe what she refers to as various “spheres of life,” or areas in which experience is grounded as to be characterized general and specific, universal and particular at the same time. Nussbaum comes to a conclusion that various disagreements on death, appetite, pleasure, pain and private property are nothing more than arguments “about the same thing."

Aristotle puts emphasis on that fact that experiences and circumstances mold the human life choices. He believes that there is only one human nature and that his virtue-based ethic understands what that human nature is and how it operates. Objections: 1. Shared experiences don't necessarily mean there is a shared appropriate response. 2. Grounding experiences are not always shared and so there would be no shared virtue. 3. There might be a form of life that does not share any grounding experiences with other cultures. Argument and Objections

Aristotle’s spheres Virtues: Virtue of feelings Courage Temperance Vitrues of external goods Generousity Magnanimity Proper Pride Virtues concerned with social life Mildness Truthfulness Wit Friendliness

Sphere’s of Life Fear/Confidence Money Honor Anger Truthtelling Amusments Pleasure in daily life

Nussbaum’s Sphere’s and virtues Sphere 1. 1.Courage 2. 2.Moderation 3. 3.Justice 4. 4.Generousity 5. 5.Expansive hospitality 6. 6.Greatness of soul 7. 7.Mildness of Temper Virtue 1. 1.Fear of important damages, esp. death. 2. Bodily appetites and their pleasures 3. Distribution of limited resources 4. Management of one’s personal property 5. Management of one’s personal property 6. 6.Attitudes and actions with respect to one’s own worth. 7. Attitude to slights and damages

Questions for Thought Do shared experiences have shared responses? No. Can we define what it is to be a human being and what it is to have a good human life? Yes Nussbaum states that humans deal with pain death and etc. She also states that even if our lifestyle changes dramatically that us as humans always end up having new things to deal with. Are there shared spheres of human experience? Yes, death hunger etc.

Nicomachean Glossary Terms Relativism – Relativism –concept that points of view have no absolute truth, having only relative, subjective value according to differences in perception and consideration. Virtues- Virtues- positive trait or quality deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. Habit - Habit - a routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur unconsciously. –Phronesis – Ability to reason and to know when to act on reason; Practical wisdom. Metaethics – Metaethics – branch of ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments. Sophia – Combination of Nous and Episteme; Theoretical Wisdom. Mean – Virtue in moral excellence.

References Jori, AlbertoJori, Alberto. (2003). Aristotele, Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science")International Academy of the History of Science Bakalis Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing Knight, Kelvin. (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press.