1. also known as Virtue Ethics
Virtue Theory
also known as Virtue Ethics

2. What is it? An ethical system based on personal qualities
Other ethical systems are based on rules or principles
This sees a shift to the quality, correct manner or disposition of a human being
Aristotle uses the word hexis to describe a person’s behaviour

3. Virtue Theory or Virtue Ethics
So how does it compare?
Virtue Theory or Virtue Ethics
Other Ethical systems
Right and wrong is a matter of personal character and qualities that an individual exhibits
Concerned with how we can develop the correct character (ethos) so that we behave virtuously and therefore in a way that is morally correct
Right and wrong is a matter of rules and principles guide our actions
Concerned with how we apply those rules so that we can behave in a way that is morally correct

4. Next three lessons Aristotle’s moral virtues
Jesus’ teachings on virtues
Challenges to virtue theory

5. Aristotle’s moral virtues
Learning Objectives
To know what a virtue is
To understand how Aristotle uses virtues to explain our concept of morality

6. To begin with: a key word
Eudaimonia
A Greek word which is key to understanding virtue theory
Aristotle: ‘happiness’ or ‘well-being’ in the sense of being successful or fulfilled
Not a virtue but an activity of the virtuous person
You could talk about the pursuit of eudaimonia
The end product: the outcome of being virtuous

7. The goal of virtue theory
To create the good life, to be happy and fulfilled through cultivating virtues (arete)
Sometimes known as aretaic ethics
Eudaimonia is integral to every virtuous thing we do in life
‘Happiness is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue’ – Roger Scruton
‘being’ not ‘doing’

8. Happiness means the general condition of fulfilment or ‘success’
Happiness means the general condition of fulfilment or ‘success’. It is absurd to ask why we should pursue it, since success or fulfilment is what every activity intends.
Roger Scruton

9. Where does it come from?
Virtue theory is grounded in Aristotle’s book Nicomachean Ethics
Origins lie in Aristotle’s view of the universe, the four causes and the idea of teleology (an ultimate goal)

10. Eudaimonia, then, incorporates:
Well-being
A physical good life
Goodwill to all
Peace
Virtue Theory =
A holistic philosophy
It has a social context and the end result of enabling people to live together

11. Three aspects to happiness
A life of enjoyment
A life with freedom
A life of reflection and contemplation (being a philosopher)
Most important virtue is wisdom
This is the characteristic of a person who can maintain all three
Not easily gained and good life is not quickly achieved

12. Moral and intellectual virtues
Since happiness is an activity of the soul in accordance with perfect virtue, we must consider the nature of virtue; for perhaps we shall thus see better the nature of happiness.
Arete – not just ‘virtue’ but also moral, intellectual, and physical excellence.
Virtue is therefore the idea of how we are meant to be
Being ‘fit for purpose’
According to Aristotle: two kinds of virtue
Moral – acquired by habit and developed by practice
Intellectual – developed through education

13. Moral and intellectual virtues
Virtue, then, being of two kinds, intellectual and moral, intellectual in the main, owes both its birth and its growth to teaching (for which reason it requires experience and time), while moral virtue comes about as a result of habit, whence also its name (ethike) is one formed by a slight variation from the word ethos (habit).

14. None of these virtues are easily learned Cultivated carefully
Moral Virtues
Courage
Patience
Temperance
Truthfulness
Liberality
Wittiness
Generosity (munificence or magnificence)
Friendliness
Pride (high-mindedness, concerned with honour)
Modesty
Right or proper ambition
Righteous indignation
None of these virtues are easily learned
Cultivated carefully
Aristotle compare their development to a sketch that develops into a picture
Intellectual Virtues
Intelligence or insight?
Scientific knowledge by demonstration and conclusion
Wisdom
Artistic endeavour through the guidance of reason
Pride (high-mindedness, concerned with honour)
Prudence, i.e. understanding of good, or common sense to make right choice

15. Justice
Aristotle devotes a chapter of his book to the virtue of ‘justice’
Whilst it is a virtuous state it is more a collective outcome of virtuous behaviour
Justice in this sense, then, is not part of virtue, but virtue entire, nor is the contrary injustice part of a vice but vice entire.

16. Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean
Cultivating virtues was the balance the two extremes of excess and deficiency
Each extreme brought with it an associated vice
Balancing the virtues and achieving the mean is no easy feet.
Hence it is no easy task to be good. For in everything it is no easy task to find the middle

17. Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean
Doctrine of the mean produces three different types of person
The sophron who naturally lives in the mean without effort
The enkrates who is tempted but has strong enough will power to live in the mean
The akrates who is weak-willed and cannot live in the mean by overcoming temptation of the vices. Such a character, according to Aristotle, is said to be incontinent (akrasia)

18. Excess associated vice Deficiency associated vice
Mean (virtue)
Deficiency associated vice
Rashness
Courage
Cowardice
Licentiousness
Temperance
Insensibility
Prodigality
Liberality
Illiberality
Vulgarity
Generosity
Pettiness
Vanity
Pride/High-mindedness
Lack of ambition
Boastfulness
Truthfulness
Understatement
Irascibility
Patience
Lack of spirit
Buffoonery
Wittiness
Boorishness
Obsequiousness
Friendliness
Cantankerousness
Shyness/Bashfulness
Modesty
Shamelessness
Envy/spitefulness
Righteous indignation
Malicious enjoyment/callousness
You don’t need to know all of these but try to become familiar with a few to use as examples in an answer

19. Aristotle’s key virtues
Temperance (moderation)
Courage
Justice
Wisdom
These are the most important ones to develop
Wisdom is the one that manages and drives them all producing a morally virtuous, or ‘just’ outcome

20. The best example of living a virtuous life?
Being a philosopher!
One who pursues the ‘loving’ (philos) and ‘wise’ (Sophos)
‘Wisdom, thoroughly learned, will never be forgotten’ (Pythagoras)
‘It is better to be silent than to dispute with the ignorant’ (Pythagoras)

21. So, how do we decide right from wrong?
A moral action is one that contributes to your journey to being a virtuous person
An immoral action is one that deters you from becoming virtuous
Remember that moral virtues are developed through time and experience

22. Tasks
The text book has a number of ‘quick-fire’ questions in this section.
Answer questions 1.7 – 1.12
Some of the words used in the virtues table are old-fashioned and might not mean anything to you. On the handout go through and find more modern words to help you understand what the virtue (or vice) is. Do as many as you can.