 French Revolution/ Napoleonic Wars over  Ideas of liberalism and French radicalism spreading  Industrialism heating up and spreading  Many elites nervous about the changing world  Determined to stop, go back to 18 th century conditions  Recapture their lost world

Congress of Vienna (1815) International council Not “congress” as in today’s sense To determine future of post-Napoleon Europe All European states present

Congress of Vienna  All European powers present  But dominated by the Big 5  Prussia, Austria, Russia, France, England

Prince Klemens Metternich Austrian foreign minister Most powerful figure in Austria Dominated the discussions at Vienna Hostile to French Revolution and liberal principles

 Legitimacy  Necessary for peace and harmony  Calming force after tumultuous French Revolution  Power should be in hands of traditional authorities  Not whomever the people chose  No democracy, no republics

 Legitimacy  Rejection of liberal notion of government of the people, by the people, for the people  Instead wanted government of rulers, by rulers, for rulers

 Bourbon dynasty restored in France  Louis XVIII  King Ferdinand VII restored in Spain  King Dom Joao VI back in Portugal

 Balance of power o Also necessary for peace and harmony o No 1 country should be too strong o No more Napoleons conquering the continent o Redrew map of Europe o Land swapping o Did not matter what the people wanted o Aristocrats to decide who was under what authority

 Prussia  Lost some of Polish lands  But given new lands in Saxony and on Rhine River  Kept Prussia strong  Can check Russia (to east), France (to west), and Austria (to south)  Austria  Lost Austrian Netherlands  Compensated with parts of northern Italy (Lombardy and Venetia)  Can check Russia, France, and Prussia

 Austrian Netherlands (Belgium)  Combined with Dutch Republic  New Kingdom of the Netherlands  Ruled by King William I of the House of Orange

 Russia  Poland technically independent  But under Russian control, so only independent on paper  Also given Finland  Sweden  Given Norway  As combined kingdom

 Piedmont-Sardinia  Northern Italy  Enlarged  An emerging power  Significant in the near future

 Concert of Europe  Sense of cooperation, alliance  Of the Big 5  Aristocrats and rulers to cooperate  Rather than to seek war and compete  To dominate European affairs  To destroy any hint of liberal reform or revolution  To spread conservative ideology instead

 Principle of intervention  The Big 5 to intervene in revolutions  To stop them  Too dangerous to the rest of Europe  England rejected, pulled out of Concert  Opposed interfering in nations’ internal affairs

 Principle of intervention  Briefly discussions to invade US  Overthrow the republic and Constitution  Convert into monarchy  Rejected by England  Idea never went anywhere

Edmund Burke English philosopher Spokesman for classical conservatism Not all elites were conservative, but most were

 Organic society  Saw society as essentially a large family  All connected through blood, common nationality ty  Individualism rips apart the ties that bind society  Liberal individualism = anarchy

 Organic society  Anti-revolution  Each generation supposed to preserve society and government  And to pass on to next generation  Not to rip it apart through liberal or radical revolutions

 Organic society  Anti-revolution  Tradition  Resistance to sudden social and cultural changes  Tradition almost always better than new ideas  If change is necessary, make it slow, gradual  No sudden radical changes

 Organic society  Anti-revolution  Tradition  Strong government power  To uphold morality, official religion  To defend traditions  To preserve social ranks  Keep people “in their place”

Their version of a proper society o Kings with real power o Aristocrats at the top of society o Royalty and aristocrats to dominate political affairs o Some lead, some are led

 Some conservatives more extreme than others  Known as reactionaries  More hostile to liberalism  Conservatives, reactionaries only different in degree  Same basic values and ideas

Revolt of Latin America Controlled by Spain and Portugal Inspired by Enlightenment, liberalism Especially middle-class creoles Descendants of Europeans, not Indian natives Creoles = Latin American bourgeoisie Led by Simon Bolivar

 Austrians, Prussians, Russians sought to intervene  To stop revolutions, restore Spanish and Portuguese authority  US rejected --- Monroe Doctrine  Declared Western hemisphere off limits to European colonialism

 England also rejected European intervention  Supported their right to rebel  But more so... Wanted those markets available  More interested in economic gains to be made  Than supporting right to revolution

 With Spanish and Portuguese power removed  English merchants moved in  Economy basically controlled by English  And later Americans  Latin Americans resented both

 Against Ottoman Empire (1821)  The one revolution they all supported  Saw Greece as beginning of western culture  Hated to see it controlled by Muslims

Greek Revolt Supported by English, French, Russian troops Successful 1829 Greece now independent monarchy

 Despite Greek and Latin American revolutions  Conservatives in Europe remained dominant  Forces of liberalism did not die out  But kept at bay

 Tory = conservative party  Pursued interests of landed elites  Not bourgeoisie, workers, or peasants  Suffrage limited to elites and upper middle- class

 Agricultural prices fell after 1815  Parliament passed Corn Laws o High tariffs on imported grains o Shielded landowners from foreign competition o But gave them excuse to raise food prices o Tariffs benefited landlords… o At the expense of everybody else

 Food prices became severe  Middle and lower-class angry  60,000 at demonstration at St Peter’s Field Put down by military 11 killed Known as “St Peterloo Massacre”  Indicates conservative rule in England Government willing to use force To stop “dangerous rebellions”

 Bourbon monarchy restored (Louis XVIII)  Moderate conservative  Did not completely “un-do” the revolution o Maintained equality before law o No special rights for aristocrats o Created legislature o But with very limited suffrage o Conservative, but not completely reactionary o Tried to satisfy all by going in the middle

 Liberals angry …. Louis too conservative  Ultraroyalists angry … not conservative enough o Ultraroyalists = French reactionaries o Not just conservatives opposing additional reform o Wanted to turn the clock back to 1789 o To completely, totally “un-do” revolution o Return to Old Order of aristocratic and royal absolutism

Intervention in the Italian States  Still not unified nation  Multiple Italian states  Largely dominated by Austria

Italian States Most had conservative governments Censorship of liberal books Liberal rebellions led by the Carbonari Austria, France, Prussia, France sent troops to prevent

 Bourbon dynasty restored by Congress  Ferdinand VII  Yet agreed to accept liberal Constitution 1812  Limited royal power  Created national assembly (“the Cortes”)  Seemed Spain moving towards liberalism

 But once secured, Ferdinand VII reneged on promise  Abolished constitution, dissolved the Cortes  Censored and persecuted liberals  Liberal rebellion in response  Ferdinand backed down  Promised (again) to accept liberal reforms  French army put rebellion down  Spain back to royal absolutism

 Germany not a unified nation  Still really a collection of over 30 states  German Confederation  Prussia and Austria  And 36 other, smaller states

 Austria and Prussia staunch reactionaries  Problem for them …  Liberalism popular with middle-class  Conservatives rulers sought to repress liberals

 Pushed for liberal reforms  And unification of German states  From 38 conservative states  To 1 united, liberal state  Especially popular with student/professor groups  Known as Burschenschaften (“brotherhoods”)  Climaxed 1817 …  300 th anniversary of Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation

Passage of Carlsbad Decrees  Strict censorship  Government monitoring of universities and libraries  Dangerous ideas banned

 Powerful empire within German Confederation  Austrians themselves were German  Majority in their empire were not o Magyars (Hungarians) o Slavs (Serbs, Croats, Czechs, Slovenes, and others) o Some Italians o 11 total nationalities within Austrian Empire

 Non-Germans inspired by French Revolution  Wanted rights, perhaps independence  Attracted to liberalism, nationalism  Threat to ruling authorities of Austria  Nationalism/liberalism repressed, censored  Conservatism dominant as in Prussia

Russian Autocracy Czar Alexander I ( ) Czar = Russian version of “Caesar” Russia = most absolutist of all regimes Autocracy basically means dictatorship

 Czar Alexander I ( ) Support divine right absolutism Staunch reactionary Very strict censorship Arbitrary government power Perhaps most absolutist regimes

 Decembrist Rebellion 1825  Sought constitutional monarchy  Limits on royal power  Civil liberties in Russia  Crushed  Czar Nicholas I ( )  More autocratic than Alexander

 Throughout most of Europe  But liberal voices not silenced  Despite repression, censorship  Most of the middle-class liberals

 Not all liberals 100% identical  Disagreed amongst themselves  But united on certain core, liberal principles

 Individual rights Freedom of speech, press, assembly freedom from arbitrary arrest Due process/civil liberties Religious freedom Parliamentary system (rather than royal absolutism) Some supported republics (destroying monarchy)

 But most rejected universal suffrage All men should have rights But not privilege of voting Preferred suffrage limited to elites and middle-class Liberals were NOT democrats

 Limited government power o Protect nation from foreign invaders o Police protection of the innocent from violence o Build roads, bridges, necessary infrastructure  Limited government would protect individual rights  And lead to economic boom, prosperity  Liberalism would lead to peace, harmony, prosperity, growth, freedom

 Strongest in US Bill of Rights Free markets, almost laissez-faire Limited power of federal government Local control of local affairs (“states rights”) Civil liberties, gun rights, free speech, religion Republic.... no kings or aristocrats Big exception…. Slavery

 Also rising in popularity  Despite conservative repressions  And efforts to snuff out  Related to, but distinct from, liberalism

 Belief that a cultural group = nation  Group that shares common culture o Language o Food, diet o Folkways and traditions o Religion o Common ancestry/ethnicity

 Nation should be free, “self-determination”  From outside control  Used liberal language of rights, freedom  Should either be independent nation  Or autonomous within an empire  Still part of an empire  But free to control local affairs within that empire

Nationalism Powerful force Especially since so many ethnic/language categories Strong especially in Austrian Empire Multi-ethnic (many races) and polyglot (many languages) empire

 Liberals and nationalists opposed conservatism  But so too did early socialists  Socialism NOT the same as classical liberalism  Both saw conservatism as the enemy  But did not see each other as allies

 Inspired by plight of workers  Vision …. But all failed o Abolition of private property (and businesses) o Cooperation rather than economic competition o Share resources o Spread wealth equitably o Fourier, Robert Owen, Blanc most prominent

 King Charles X, staunch reactionary (ultraroyalist) o Abolished freedom of speech and press o Dissolved national assembly o Ruling as royal absolutist o As if French Revolution never happened  Middle and lower classes felt oppressed  Revolution 1830

French Revolution (1830)  Led by bourgeois liberals  Crowned Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans  Liberal monarchy  Nicknamed the July Monarchy

Classical liberalism in France  Royal authority limited  Individual rights  Free trade, capitalism  Low taxes  Suffrage for elites and upper-middle class only

 Ultraroyalists and conservatives hated  Hated revolution  And liberalism

But some liberals dissatisfied  Not liberal enough  Especially for lower-middle class  And working-class, peasants  Wanted extension of suffrage

o Dissatisfied liberals complained o Censored, repressed o Saw Louis Philippe as just as bad as Charles X o Attempts at revolution, but failed o FYI… Backdrop of the novel and musical Les Miserables

 Formerly the Austrian Netherlands  But now part of Kingdom of Netherlands  Inspired by nationalism  Belgian culture different from Dutch  Spoke French, not Dutch  Catholic, not Calvinist  Different culture, should have different nation  Seceded 1830, independent monarchy of Belgium  Constitutional monarchy  Individual liberties  Liberal as well

 1830 elections  Whigs in power (liberal party)  England grew more and more liberal

 Pulled out of Concert of Europe  No longer in favor of killing liberalism

 Pulled out of Concert of Europe  Full religious toleration

 Pulled out of Concert of Europe  Full religious toleration  Reform Bill of 1832 o Right to vote extended to middle-class o No longer just aristocrats o Not total voting rights, but improvement

 Pulled out of Concert of Europe  Full religious toleration  Reform Bill of 1832  Strong anti-slavery movement o Abolished slavery in colonies o Strong pressure on world to stop slave trade

 Pulled out of Concert of Europe  Full religious toleration  Reform Bill of 1832  Strong anti-slavery movement  Repeal of the Corn Laws

 Corn Laws = tariffs on imported grain o Resulted in high food prices o Only benefitted wealthy land owners  Repealed in 1846  Liberal free trade, free market  Over mercantilism

 Pulled out of Concert of Europe  Full religious toleration  Reform Bill of 1832  Strong anti-slavery movement  Repeal of the Corn Laws  Property rights

 Some laws against child labor  And to improve safety conditions of mines  But businesses largely free from government

 Pulled out of Concert of Europe  Full religious toleration  Reform Bill of 1832  Strong anti-slavery movement  Repeal of the Corn Laws  Free markets, little government regulation  Low taxes

 David Ricardo  Richard Malthus  John Stuart Mill

 Liberalism in northwest Europe  Conservatism in eastern, southern  Working-class rejected both  Nationalist ambitions still powerful  No sense of unity  Extreme political, social tension

Revolutions of 1848  All came to a head in 1848  Revolutions throughout Europe in same year

 Some liberals opposed July Monarchy  Too repressive  Severe economic downturn, hardship

 Overthrow Louis Philippe  July Monarchy abolished  Declared 2 nd French Republic  Universal male suffrage  Welfare for poor  Restrictions on business  National workshops – guaranteed jobs for all  Major disaster

Louis Napoleon Louis Napoleon elected president But declared himself emperor (1851) 2 nd French Empire Cause of the Revolution of 1848 died

 Liberals in Austria  Some temporary successes  Abolished feudalism and serfdom  Overturned censorship  Austria becoming a constitutional monarchy like England  But conservatives returned to power soon  Liberal reforms came to nothing

 Nationalist rebellions in Empire  Slavs, Magyars (Hungarians), northern Italians  Some sought home rule, others independence  But conservative rulers able to regain control  Nationalist rebellions defeated

 Liberal bourgeoisie against conservative king  Wanted German unification (except Austria)  And liberal constitution  Seemed that liberals were winning

Writing constitution for a united Germany  Liberalism  Limited royal power  Civil liberties  Free markets  Religious toleration

 But King Frederick William IV able to rally  Regained control  Liberal efforts repressed  Frankfurt Assembly rejected  Revolution of 1848 died

 Not unified into single nation  Various Italian provinces  Some independent kingdoms (Piedmont-Sardinia)  Parts under Austrian rule  Parts under Papal Estates  Various other Italian states

Guiseppe Mazzini  Unification efforts  But failed  Austrians regained control of northern Italy  Pope put down rebellions in Papal Estates  Local Italian rulers controlled south

 Broke out throughout Europe  But little long-term change  Why so many failures?

 Revolutionaries not united Not everybody rebelled for the same reason Some were middle-class liberals Some were working-class radicals United against same enemy But did not share common vision for the future

 Nationalists not united Nationalists demanded rights for themselves But unwilling to extend to others Hungarians wanted autonomy from Austria But refused to grant freedoms to their minorities (Slavic peoples living in Hungary)

 New cultural movement  Art, music, philosophy  Focused on feeling, emotion, intuition  Rejected Enlightenment focus on reason, logic  Put heart over the head

 Individualism Rejected social norms Dressed in avant-garde fashion Sort of like 19 th century hippies Wanted “freedom” from social expectations

 Nationalist literature Books that emphasized heroes in a nation’s history Stressed heroism, bravery Nation’s ties to its past culture Grimm brothers (Germany) Hans Christian Anderson (Denmark) Sir Walter Scott (Scotland)

 Gothic novels Dark novels, emphasis on the bizarre Raised warnings of science If reason went too far… disaster could occur Edgar Allen Poe (American poet) Mary Shelley ( Frankenstein ) Robert Louis Stevenson ( Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde )

 Love of nature, especially in poetry Wild, mysterious, pristine Not knowable as Enlightenment scientists wrote Nature not to be conquered and figured out To be left alone, marveled at Percy Byssshe Shelley William Wordsworth Lord Byron

 Emotion in art and music Not interested in appeal to logic (as in 18 th century) Rather, appeals to the heart, emotion Beethoven Berlioz

 Religious revivalism “Back to church” movement In both Catholic and Protestant nations More emotional religion Not as learned, logical More emotional sermons and rituals