LANGUAGE Chapter 6 © Barbara Weightman Concept Caching: Burmese Script -Burma

What Are Languages, and What Role Do Languages Play in Culture? Language : A set of sounds, combinations of sounds, and symbols used for communication Standard language : A language that is published, widely distributed, and purposefully taught Role of government in standardizing a language – American, Canadian, Australian, Russian, and New Zealand governments had policies of forced assimilation during the twentieth century, including not allowing indigenous peoples to speak native languages.

In 1993, the Quebec government passed a law requiring the use of French in advertising.

The Internet: Globalization of Language

Language and Politics

Non-English Speakers Political issue of speakers of Spanish and other languages vs. those desiring English only

Mutual Intelligibility Criterion for a language: Speakers can understand each other – Problems Measuring “mutual intelligibility” – Very difficult to measure Standard languages and government impact on what is a “language” and what is a “dialect” – Dialect : variant of standard language by ethnicity or region Vocabulary Syntax Cadence, pace Pronunciation – Isogloss : A geographic boundary (area) within which a particular linguistic feature occurs

Example of Dialect

Why Are Languages Distributed the Way They Are? Classification by language families (groups of related languages)

Language Formation Linkages among languages marked by sound shifts, slight changes in a word across languages over time Milk = lacte in Latin leche in Spanish lait in French latta in Italian Language divergence : Breakup of a language into dialects and then new languages from lack of interaction among speakers Language convergence : When peoples with different languages have consistent interaction and their languages blend into one

Locating the hearth of Proto- Indo-European Backward reconstruction: Tracking sound shifts and the hardening of consonants backward to reveal an “original” language Can deduce the vocabulary of an extinct language Language extinction occurs when all descendants perish or they choose to use another language (typically occurs over several generations). Can recreate ancient languages (deep reconstruction)

Historical Linkages among Languages Indo-European language family Proto-Indo-European language Nostratic Language (ancient ancestor of Proto-Indo-European Language)

Renfrew Hypothesis : Began in the Fertile Crescent, and then went in three directions: Europe’s languages from Anatolia North Africa and Arabia’s languages from the Western Arc of Fertile Crescent Southwest Asia and South Asia’s languages from the Eastern Arc of Fertile Crescent Origins of Proto-Indo- European

Agriculture Theory With increased food supply and population, migration of speakers from the hearth of Indo-European languages into Europe

Conquest Theory Proto-Indo-European Language spread from East to West across Europe People on horseback overpowered earlier inhabitants Began spreading different/newer language

From the hearth eastward into present-day Iran Around the Caspian Into Europe Dispersal Hypothesis

The Languages of Europe Romance languages – French, Italian, Spanish, Romanian, and Portuguese – Spread to area once controlled by Roman Empire Germanic languages – English, German, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish – Spread from N. Europe west and south Slavic languages – Russian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Ukrainian, Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian, & Bulgarian – Spread from Ukraine to much of eastern Europe

The Case of Euskera Spoken by the Basque and in no way related to any other language family in Europe; Covers very small area

Languages of Subsaharan Africa Dominant language family: Niger-Congo – Relatively recent migration (Bantu) – Continued recognizable similarities among subfamilies Displacement of Khoisan family (oldest family), now in southwestern Africa by Bantu speakers – Click languages

Nigeria 141 million people speak more than 500 languages – Hausa (35 mil) – Yoruba (25 mil) – Ibo (25 mil) Nigeria a colonial creation Choice of English as “official” language rather than any indigenous language

How Did Certain Languages Become Dominant Human interaction Print distribution Migration Trade Colonialism Elizabeth J. Leppman

Effects of Spatial Interaction Lingua franca : A language used among speakers of different languages for trade and commerce Pidgin language : A language created when people combine parts of two or more languages into a simplified structure and vocabulary Creole language: A pidgin language that has developed a more complex structure and vocabulary and has become the native language of a group of people

Multilingualism Monolingual state : A country in which only one language is spoken Multilingual state : A country in which more than one language is in use Official language : Government-selected language or languages to try to enhance communication in a multilingual state

Global Language English as lingua franca for – Commerce – Science – Travel – Business – Popular culture Continued use of native languages for day-to- day activities

What Role Does Language Play in Making Places? Place: The uniqueness of a location, what people do in a location, what they create, how they impart a certain character, a certain imprint on the location Toponym : A place name – Imparts a certain character on a place – Reflects the social processes in a place – Can give a glimpse of the history of a place

The Ten Toponyms English Professor George Stewart

Changing Toponyms Major reasons people change toponyms Postcolonial Postrevolution To commodify or brand a place To memorialize people or events