1. Lecture 13 Subordination （ II ） 1 Coordination and subordination In this lecture we shall talk about non-finite clauses and verbless clauses. A non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb phrase as predicator. A verbless clause is one without any form of verb element. Non-finite clauses include infinitive clause, -ing participle clause, and –ed participle clause. An infinitive clauses is a “subject + predicate” construction with an infinitive as predicator. 1) Types of infinitive clauses 2) Syntactic functions of infinitive clauses

2. a) Infinitive clause without expressed subject This is the type of infinitive clause whose logical subject is only implied but can be inferred from the context. Generally speaking, the logical subject of an infinitive clause is just the subject of the main clause: I hoped to be able to come. To be frank, you need a great deal of courage.

3. b) Infinitive clause with expressed subject The expressed subject of an infinitive clause is generally introduced by for, e.g.: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody. He knew that with him to help, she would and would succeed. Rather than you do the job, I prefer to finish it myself. We shall assemble at 9, the procession to start moving at precisely 9:15.

4. c) Infinitive clause introduced by wh-word or subordinator Infinitive clauses can also be introduced by a wh- word, usually by what, how, where, etc, eg: I don’t know what to do / how to do it/ where to go. He opened his lips as if to say something.

5. 2) Syntactic functions of infinitive clauses a) As an adverbial of purpose, the infinitive is usually with to. The logical subject need not be expressed if it is identical with the subject of the main clause; if not, the logical subject will have to be expressed and be introduced by for, e.g.: She stood up to be seen better. He moved aside for her to be seen better.

6. b) To denote result, we normally use the simple form of to-infinitive In 1935 he left home never to return. His work was so good as to make him well-known in the city. c) As an adverbial of cause, infinitive clauses generally collocate with adjectives or verbs denoting emotion or fortune, eg: I am delighted to know that you have got a job. She wept to see him in such a terrible state.

7. 2. –ing participle clauses 1) Types of –ing participle causes 1) Types of –ing participle causes 2) Syntactic functions of –ing participle clauses

8. a) –Ing participle clause without expressed subject or subordinator He denied having been there. I have friend living in london. b) –Iing participle clause with subordinator When sleeping, I never hear a thing. c) –Ing participle clause with expressed subject Do you mind my / me making a suggestion? My parents object to my / me going out alone.

9. a) Both –ing participle and infinitive clauses can be used as subject, object, and subject/object complement. b) As adverbials, -ing participle clauses can be used in various senses. Climbing to the top of the tower, we saw a magnificent view. Being a hard-working young man, he was praised by his teachers. Knowing all this, he still insisted on my paying for the damage. It rained heavily, causing sever flooding in that area.

10. 3. –ed participle clauses. 1) Types of -ed participle clauses Covered with confusion, she hurriedly left the room. Once published, the book caused a remarkable stir. The job finished, we went home straight away. 2) Syntactic functions of –ed participle clauses a) A postmodifying –ed participle clause corresponds to an elliptical relative clause. b) As an adverbial, -ed participle clauses can denote time, cause, condition, concession as well as accompanying circumstances.

11. 4 Verbless clauses It is a clause without any form of verb element as predicator. Right or wrong, I have given him a piece of mind. Whatever the reason, his cordiality has won him a friend. When in Rome, do as the Romans do. He spoke ungraciously, if not rudely. There he stood, a tray in hand.

12. Conclusion In this lecture we have talked about non-finite clauses and verbless clauses. A non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb phrase as predicator. A verbless clause is one without any form of verb element. Non-finite clauses include infinitive clause, -ing participle clause, and –ed participle clause.

13. Assignment 1. Exercise 32BC 2. Remember the rules and practice more