2. Varying Sentence Structure References © 2001 by Ruth Luman

3. Adding Variety to Sentence Structure To make your writing more interesting, you should try to vary your sentences in terms of length and structure. You can make some of your sentences long and others short. Read the two paragraphs on the next page.

4. Two Paragraphs Read the paragraphs below. Choose the paragraph that is more effective. I love living in the city. I have a wonderful view of the entire city. I have an apartment. I can see the Golden Gate Bridge. I can see many cargo ships pass under the bridge each day. I like the restaurants in San Francisco. I can find wonderful food from just about every country. I don’t like the traffic in the city. I love living in the city of San Francisco. I have a wonderful view of the entire city from my apartment window. In addition, I can see the Golden Gate Bridge under which many cargo ships pass each day. I also like San Francisco because I can find wonderful restaurants with food from just about every country; however, I don’t like the traffic in the city.

5. I’m Sorry! These sentence do not read as smoothly. These sentences contain no sentence variety. Simple Sentences I love living in the city. I have a wonderful view of the entire city. I have an apartment. I can see the Golden Gate Bridge. I can see many cargo ships pass under the bridge each day. I like the restaurants in San Francisco. I can find wonderful food from just about every country. I don’t like the traffic in the city.

6. Dependent / independent clause Independent Clause An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence. e.g., Jim studied in the coffee shop for his chemistry quiz.

7. Dependent Clause A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb. It does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word. e.g., When Jim studied in the coffee shop for his chemistry quiz... (What happened when he studied? The thought is incomplete.)

8. Correct! Excellent! This sentence reads more smoothly because it has more sentence structure variety. I love living in the city of San Francisco. I have a wonderful view of the entire city from my apartment window. In addition, I can see the Golden Gate Bridge under which many cargo ships pass each day. I also like San Francisco because I can find wonderful restaurants with food from just about every country; however, I don’t like the traffic in the city. Simple Sentences Compound/Complex Sentence Complex Sentence

9. How do you vary sentence structure? You will want to use a variety of sentence structures in your writing. There are three types of sentences we will study in this lesson: - Simple Sentence - Compound Sentence - Complex Sentence

10. The Simple Sentence A simple sentence has one independent clause (one subject and a verb): I live in San Francisco. Subject Verb

11. Compound Sentence A compound sentence contains two independent clauses that are joined together. She works in the city, but she lives in the suburbs. Independent Clause

12. Compound Sentence You can make a compound sentence by joining two logically related independent clauses by using… - a semicolon - a coordinating conjunction - a transition

13. Using a Semicolon Independent Clause ; Independent Clause I love living in the city ; there are so many things to do. Independent Clause To join closely related ideas without using ‘and’ or ‘but’

14. Using a Coordinating Conjunction Independent Clause,coordinating conjunction Independent Clause He couldn’t watch the show, so he decided to tape it. Independent Clause Coordinate conjunction – a conjunction that connects two grammatical elements of identical construction

15. Coordinating Conjunctions Logical RelationshipCoordinating Conjunction AdditionAnd ContrastBut, yet ChoiceOr, nor CauseFor ResultSo

16. FANBOYS For  F And  A Nor  N But  B Or  O Yet  Y So  S Another way to remember these is…

17. CAUTION! Do NOT use a comma every time you use the words and, or, but, nor, for, so, yet. Use a comma only when the coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses. Independent Clause No comma- not an independent clause The necklace was beautiful but expensive. Simple Sentence

18. Using a Transition Independent Clause ; transition, Independent Clause I love San Francisco ; however, I hate the traffic. Independent Clause

19. RelationshipTransition AdditionMoreover Furthermore In addition besides Reinforcement/EmphasisIndeed In fact ContrastHowever On the contrary In contrast On the other hand Result or EffectConsequently Accordingly Thus Hence Therefore As a result

20. Reinforcement/EmphasisIndeed In fact ExemplificationFor example For instance In particular TimeMeanwhile (at the same time) Subsequently (after) Thereafter (after) RelationshipTransition

21. John cannot set up his typewriter because the wall has no outlet. Complex Sentences A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and one dependent clause. Independent Clause Dependent Clause Subordinating Conjunction

22. Example- Complex Sentence A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and one dependent clause. She will go to school in the city until she finds a job. Independent Clause Dependent Clause Subordinating Conjunction

23. When I first moved to the city, I was afraid to drive the steep and narrow streets. Complex Sentences Use a comma after a dependent clause if it begins the sentence. Subordinating Conjunction Independent Clause Use a comma if the dependent clause is the first part of the sentence.

24. after although as because before even if even though if in order that once provided that rather than since so that than that though unless until when whenever where whereas = but wherever whether while why Subordinate conjunction - It joins a dependent clause to a independent clause In Los Angeles, a chief cause of this pollution is paved-road dust, whereas in San Diego, it's smoke from fireplaces.

25. Add variety to sentence structure by using Noun clause Adjective clause Adverb clause

26. Noun Clause A clause which does the work of a noun in a sentence.

27. Noun clause Noun clauses with “that” Pattern 1: Object of a verb e.g., He said that he knew the answer. SV O Complex sentence

28. Exercise 1 1. “It is rude to say such things”, he said. 2. “I am pleased to teach students like you”, our teacher said. He said that it was rude to say such things. Our teacher said that he / she was pleased to teach students like us. Complex sentence

29. Noun clause Noun clauses with “that” Pattern 2:Subject of a verb e.g., that shocked us. S V O The news shocked us.They were divorced. The newsthey were divorced + Complex sentenc e

30. Exercise 2 1. The fact is expected. Peter has been elected monitor. The fact that Peter has been elected monitor is expected. Complex sentence

31. Noun clause Pattern 3: Noun clauses with interrogative words. what / where / when / who / whom / whose / how / why / whether I don’t know.When will she be here? I don’t know when she will be here. Interrogative + V + S word Interrogative word + S + V Complex sentence

32. Exercise 3 1. No one knows. Who is the man? 2. We are not sure. How was the jewellery stolen? No one knows who the man is. We are not sure how the jewellery was stolen. Simple sentence

33. Adjective Clause -an adjective clause does the work of an adjective. -they are usually introduced by relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that, they, why, when or where.

34. Exercise 4 1. a) The book b) Bob gave me the book c) The book was very interesting. The book that / which Bob gave me was very interesting. Simple sentence

35. Adjective clause Pattern 1:Defining clause Information 1: The man. Information 2: He repaired my car. Information 3: He is good at his job. The man who repaired my car is good at his job. necessary Simple sentence

36. Adjective clause Pattern 2:Non-defining clause Information 1: Mary Information 2: You met her in my house yesterday. Information 3: Mary is my best friend. Extra- information Mary, who you met in my house yesterday, is my best friend. Simple sentence

37. Exercise 4 2. a) My father. b) He is dear to all of us. c) He works very hard. My father, who is dear to all of us, works very hard. Simple sentence

38. Pattern 3 Whose (used for people) Of which (used for things) That is the man whose house was burgled last night. Mr. Chan has an antique clock, the minute hand of which has come off. That is the man.His house was burgled last night. Mr. Chan has an antique clock. The minute hand of the antique clock has come off. + +

39. Exercise 5: 1. a) That’s the house. b) The house’s kitchen is painted purple. That’s the house. That’s the house whose kitchen is painted purple. The kitchen is painted purple. The kitchen of the house +

40. Exercise 5 2. a) I have an Iphone. b) It’s function is advanced. I have an Iphone, the function of which is advanced.

41. Adverb Clause -They do the work of an adverb. -They tell us additional information about the verb.

42. TypeQuestion answeredExample 1. PlaceWhere? Wherever there are computers, there is Microsoft software. 2. TimeWhen? After the fruit is harvested, it is sold at the market. 3. CauseWhy? (What caused this?)I didn't call her because I'm shy. 4. Purpose Why? (What was the reason for doing this?) She took a computer course so that she could get a better job. 5. ConcessionWhy is this unexpected? Although Jay has a Master's degree, he works as a store clerk. 6.ConditionUnder what conditions? If you save your money, you will be able to go to college.

43. Adverb clauses Pattern 1: Adverb clauses of place These clauses are introduced by where / wherever Nobody knows where he has gone. He goes wherever he likes. Show where an action is performed to or in any or every place Complex sentences

44. Adverb clauses Pattern 2: Adverb clauses of time These clauses are introduced by when / while / as / before / after / till / until / since / as soon as

45. When He arrives.He will tell us all about it. 1st 2nd When he arrives, he will tell us all about it. Adverb clause Remember that 'when' takes either the simple past OR the present - the dependent clause changes tense in relation to the 'when' clause. 'When' means 'at that moment, at that time Complex sentence

46. While / as Peter was reading a newspaper. Mary was watching TV. 1st Peter was reading a newspaper while Mary was watching TV. 'While' and 'as' mean 'during that time' 'While' and 'as' are both usually used with the past continuous because the meaning of 'during that time' which indicates an action in progress. e.g., (1) She began cooking while I was finishing my homework. e.g., (2) As I was finishing my homework, she began cooking. Complex sentence

47. Before You leave the room.Turn off the light. 1 2 Before you leave the room, turn off the light. Remember that 'before' takes either the simple past OR the present. e.g.,(1) We will finish before he arrives. e.g.,(2) She (had) left before I telephoned. 'Before' means 'before that moment' Simple sentence

48. After He will leave.He gets the money. 1 2 'After' means 'after that moment'. Remember that 'after' takes the present for future events and the past OR past perfect for past events. He will leave after he gets the money. After he had got the money, he left. Complex sentence

49. Adverb clauses Pattern 3: Adverb clauses of cause and effect Since Since he loves music so much, he decided to go to a conservatory. 'Since' means the same as because. 'Since' tends to be used in more informal spoken English. Complex sentence

50. As long as As long as you have the time, why don't you come for dinner? 'As long as' means the same as because. 'As long as' tends to be used in more informal spoken English.

51. As As the test is difficult, you had better get some sleep. 'As' means the same as because. 'As' tends to be used in more formal, written English.

52. Due to the fact that We will be staying for an extra week due to the fact that we have not yet finished. 'Due to the fact that' means the same as because. 'Due to the fact that' is generally used in very formal, written English.

53. Adverb clauses Pattern 4: Adverb clauses of purpose and result These clauses are introduced by so that / in order that / for fear that + should / in order to / so as to / Why? (What was the reason for doing this?)

54. So that I ran to the station so that I might catch the train. Why did you run to the station?

55. In order that They left the house an hour earlier in order that they should not miss the train. Why did they leave the house an hour earlier?

56. For fear that + should They left the house an hour earlier for fear that they should miss the train. Why did they leave the house an hour earlier?

57. In order to / so as to She decided to leave her job. in order to so as to care for her children. Why did she leave her job?

58. Adverb clauses Pattern 5: Adverb clauses of concession These clauses are introduced by though / although / however / no matter how / nevertheless / in spite of / despite

59. Though / although / even though He is rich.He is not happy. Though he is rich, he is not happy. show a situation which is contrary to the main clause to express opposition Rich as he is, he is not happy.

60. Despite / In spite of / Notwithstanding Susan was demoted.She decided to remain with the firm. Although she was demoted, she decided to remain with the firm. In spite of Susan’s demotion, she decided to remain with the firm. Despite Susan’s demotion, she decided to remain with the firm. Notwithstanding Susan’s demotion, she decided to remain with the firm. In spite of … Despite … + N.P Notwithstanding..

61. Grammar Exercise -Unit 79 Adverbial clauses of time

62. Unit 79 Adverbial clauses of time -when -as / while -before / after / until

63. Adverbial clause of time When e.g., They were playing in the garden when they heard a scream. e.g., I still feel tired when I wake up in the morning. Longer event 1. An event that takes place at the same time as some longer event 2. Mean ‘every time’

64. when e.g., When they are fully grown these snakes can be over two meters long. e.g., His mother called him Robbie when he was a boy. e.g., When the lights went out, I lit some candles. circumstance 3. The circumstances in which the event in the main clause happens 4. Talk about past period of our lives 5. One event happens immediately after another

65. As e.g., As the cheese matures, its flavour improves. While/ As (  when) e.g., I went shopping while / as Linda cleaned to house. When one thing changes, another thing changes. 2 longer actions that go on at the same time

66. Before / after e.g., I put on my coat before I went out. e.g., The message arrived after I’d left. Before / until e.g., I had to wait six weeks until / before the parcel arrived. 1. An event happening earlier or later than another event 2. A situation continues to happen up to a time

67. untile.g., They sat on the beach until the sun sank below the horizon, and then they went home. e.g., He cleaned his shoes until they shone. 1. An action that continues to a particular time and then stops 2. Describe the result of an action in the main clause Result of an action

68. Now, complete Ex. 79.1 & 79.2. You can also refer to the notes when necessary.

69. Unit 80 Giving reasons:

70. As / because / seeing that / seeing as / since = give a reason for a particular situation e.g., As it was getting late, I decided I should go home. e.g., We could go and visit Sue, seeing that we have to drive past her house anyway. reason forma l informal

71. Because 1.It is common and acceptable to use ‘because’ to begin a sentence. 2.Use ‘because’ to introduce the reason. e.g., Because everything looked different, I had no idea where to go. reason

72. So 1. Use ‘so’ to introduce the result. e.g., My mother’s arrived, so I won’t be able to meet you. result

73. Seeing that e.g., Ken just had to apologise, seeing that he knew he’d made a mistake. = because / as

74. For = because in that / inasmuch as = introduce clauses which clarify what has been said by adding detail. formal e.g., We must begin planning now, for the future may bring unexpected changes. e.g., The film is unusual in that it features only four actors.

75. Because of / due to / owing to = used before N. / NP. To give reason for something. e.g., We were delayed because of an accident. e.g., She was unable to run owing to / due to a leg injury. Noun phrase

76. Owing to: be + a degree adverb (e.g., entirely, largely, mainly, partly) + owing to e.g., The low election turn out was partly due to / owing to the bad weather.

77. It was due to …. that It was owing to … that e.g., It was owing to his encouragement that she applied for the job. N.P clause

78. For / with We use ‘For / with + NP’ to give a reason. For = as a result of With = as a result of there being e.g., She was looking all the better for her stay in hospital. e.g., With so many people ill, I’ve decided to cancel the meeting.