1. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-1 ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. JOHN R. SCHERMERHORN, JR. MANAGEMENT 12 th Edition Chapter 16 Motivation Theory and Practice

2. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-2 Planning Ahead — Chapter 16 Study Questions 1.How do individual needs influence motivation? 2.What are the process theories of motivation? 3.What role does reinforcement play in motivation? 4.What is the link between job design and motivation?

3. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-3 Chapter 16 Learning Dashboard 1.Individual Needs and Motivation 1.Hierarchy of needs theory 2.ERG theory 3.Two-factor theory 4.Acquired needs theory 2.Process Theories of Motivation 1.Equity theory 2.Expectancy theory 3.Goal-setting theory 4.Self-efficacy theory

4. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-4 Chapter 16 Learning Dashboard 3.Reinforcement Theory 1.Reinforcement strategies 2.Positive reinforcement 3.Punishment 4.Motivation and Job Design 1.Job simplification 2.Job enrichment 3.Alternative work schedules

5. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-5 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work

6. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-6 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation Needs – Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual – Explain workplace behavior and attitudes – Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior – Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction

7. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-7 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation Hierarchy of needs theory – Developed by Abraham Maslow – Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes – Lower-order needs: Physiological, safety, and social needs Desires for physical and social well being – Higher-order needs: Esteem and self-actualization needs Desire for psychological growth and development

8. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-8 Figure 16.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs

9. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-9 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation Hierarchy of needs theory – Deficit principle A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior – Progression principle A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied

10. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-10 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation ERG theory – Developed by Clayton Alderfer – Three need levels Existence needs desires for physiological and material well-being Relatedness needs desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships Growth needs desires for continued psychological growth and development

11. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-11 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation ERG theory – Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time – Frustration-regression principle An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated

12. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-12 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation Two-factor theory – Developed by Frederick Herzberg – Hygiene factors: Elements of the job context Sources of job dissatisfaction – Satisfier factors: Elements of the job content Sources of job satisfaction and motivation

13. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-13 Figure 16.2 Elements in Herzberg’s two-factor theory

14. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-14 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation Acquired needs theory – Developed by David McClelland – People acquire needs through their life experiences – Needs that are acquired: Need for Achievement (nAch) Need for Power (nPower) Need for Affiliation (nAff)

15. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-15 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation Acquired needs theory – Need for Achievement (nAch) Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks – People high in (nAch) prefer work that: Involves individual responsibility for results Involves achievable but challenging goals Provides feedback on performance

16. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-16 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation Acquired needs theory – Need for Power (nPower) Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people Personal power versus social power – People high in (nPower) prefer work that: Involves control over other persons Has an impact on people and events Brings public recognition and attention

17. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-17 Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation Acquired needs theory – Need for Affiliation (nAff) Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons – People high in (nAff) prefer work that: Involves interpersonal relationships Provides for companionship Brings social approval

18. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-18 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Process theories of motivation … – How people make choices to work hard or not – Choices are based on: Individual preferences Available rewards Possible work outcomes Types of process theories: – Equity theory – Expectancy theory – Goal-setting theory

19. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-19 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Equity theory – Developed by J. Stacy Adams – When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation Perceived inequity Perceived equity

20. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-20 Figure 16.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison

21. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-21 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Equity and social comparison – People compare their ratio of outcomes-to- inputs to the outcomes-to-inputs ratio of another (a referent)

22. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-22 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation – Over-reward inequity (positive inequity) occurs when an individual perceives that rewards received are more than what is fair for work inputs – Under-reward inequity (negative inequity) occurs when an individual perceives that rewards received are less than what is fair for work inputs

23. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-23 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Equity theory – People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing … Work inputs Rewards received Referent’s inputs or outcomes Comparison points Situation

24. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-24 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Managerial implications of equity theory— – Underpaid people experience anger – Overpaid people experience guilt – Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes – Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated – Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace Gender equity Comparable worth

25. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-25 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Expectancy theory – Developed by Victor Vroom – Key expectancy theory variables: Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes

26. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-26 Figure 16.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation

27. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-27 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Expectancy theory – Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion: Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low

28. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-28 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Managerial implications of expectancy theory – To maximize expectancy, managers should: Select workers with ability Train workers to use ability Support work efforts Clarify performance goals

29. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-29 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Managerial implications of expectancy theory – To maximize instrumentality, managers should: Clarify psychological contracts Communicate performance-outcome possibilities Identify rewards that are contingent on performance

30. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-30 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Managerial implications of expectancy theory – To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should: Use content theories Increase communication Link needs/desires withrewards

31. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-31 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Goal-setting theory – Developed by Edwin Locke – Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating – Motivational effects of task goals: Provide direction to people in their work Clarify performance expectations Establish a frame of reference for feedback Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management

32. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-32 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Set specific goals Set challenging goals Build goal acceptance and commitment Clarify goal priorities Provide feedback on goal accomplishment Reward goal accomplishment How to Make Goal Setting Work for You:

33. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-33 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Goal-setting theory – Participation in goal setting unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist

34. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-34 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Self-Efficacy Theory – a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task – Capability directly affects motivation higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting

35. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-35 Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation Self-Efficacy Theory – Enactive mastery person gains confidence through positive experience – Vicarious modeling learning by observing others – Verbal persuasion encouragement from others that one can perform a task – Emotional arousal high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation

36. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-36 Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory Fundamentals of reinforcement theory – Focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior – Law of effect — behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated: behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is not

37. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-37 Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory Operant conditioning: – Developed by B.F. Skinner – Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences

38. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-38 Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory Operant conditioning strategies: – Positive reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence – Negative reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence

39. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-39 Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory Operant conditioning strategies: – Punishment Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence – Extinction Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence

40. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-40 Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on – Law of contingent reinforcement — Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited – Law of immediate reinforcement — More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has

41. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-41 Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory Clearly identify desired work behaviors Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:

42. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-42 Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory Schedules of reinforcement: – Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs – Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically – Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement – Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more permanent – Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it

43. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-43 Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory Guidelines for using punishment: – Tell the person what is being done wrong – Tell the person what is being done right – Match the punishment to the behavior – Administer punishment in private – Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement

44. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-44 Figure 16.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management

45. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-45 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Job design – The process of arranging work tasks for individuals and groups – Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result

46. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-46 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Job simplification – Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks – Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth – Automation Total mechanization of a job Most extreme form of job simplification

47. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-47 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Potential advantages of job simplification: Easier and quicker training of workers Workers are less difficult to supervise Workers are easier to replace Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks Potential disadvantages of job simplification: Productivity suffers Cost increases due to absenteeism/ turnover of unhappy workers Poor performance may result from worker boredom/ alienation

48. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-48 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Job rotation and job enlargement: – Expands job scope – Job rotation Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments – Job enlargement Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers Horizontal loading

49. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-49 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Job enrichment – Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content – Increases job depth by adding work planning duties normally performed by a supervisor

50. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-50 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Focuses attention on the extent to which five core job characteristics are present in a job: – Skill variety – Task identity – Task significance – Autonomy – Feedback

51. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-51 Figure 16.6 Job design essentials using the job characteristics model

52. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-52 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design How to improve core job characteristics: – Form natural units of work – Combine tasks – Establish client relationships – Open feedback channels – Practice vertical loading

53. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-53 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design

54. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-54 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Alternative Work Schedules: Flexible working hours – Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours Core time — all employees must be at work Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities

55. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-55 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Potential benefits of flexible working hours: – People have greater autonomy in work scheduling while ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities – Organizations can attract and retain employees who have special non-work responsibilities – Worker morale may be improved

56. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-56 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Alternative Work Schedules: Compressed workweek – Allows a full-time job to be completed in less than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems

57. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-57 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Alternative Work Schedules: Job sharing – One full-time job is split between two or more persons – Potential advantages of job sharing: organizations benefit by employing talented people who are unable/unwilling to commit full- time

58. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-58 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Alternative Work Schedules: Telecommuting – A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office – Hoteling – Virtual offices

59. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-59 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Potential advantages of telecommuting: – Freedom from Constraints of commuting Fixed hours Special work attire Direct contact with supervisors – Increased productivity – Fewer distractions – Being one’s own boss – Having more personal time

60. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-60 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design? Potential disadvantages of telecommuting: – Working too much – Having less personal time – Difficulty in separating work and personal life – Less time for family – Feelings of isolation – Loss of visibility for promotion – Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance

61. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-61 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Contingency workers – Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis Part-time work – Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee

62. Place Slide Title Text Here ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-62 Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design Implications of part-time work: – Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labor costs and dealing with cyclical labor demands – Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive – Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits