1. Word Classes Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, determiners, numerals, auxiliaries, prepositions, conjunctions http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/

2. Nouns Nouns and verbs are CENTRAL: they are the most useful elements in constructing basic sentences such as: cats like cream If you can isolate the word and place the in front of it, then the word is a noun amazement much to my amazement a large fat cat was sleeping in our garden

3. Nouns COMMON NOUNS CONCRETE (the cat, the garden) ABSTRACT (the amazement) PROPER NOUNS LONDON (but… “the London we love”)

4. Lexical verbs If it is possible to make a contrast between present tense and past tense, we know the word is a verb. I emailed them a list of addresses. I email them a list of addresses everyday. That email contained a list of addresses. This is a noun!

5. Stative and dynamic verbs Stative verbs refer to states and conditions Dynamic verbs refer to actions I know what you mean stative > you don’t use the progressive form To love is usually considered a stative verb, but…

6. Stative and dynamic verbs Read and listen to an answer about stative and dynamic verbs: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/radio/specials/1837_aae/page5.shtml Unfortunately this trend - to use stative verbs as dynamic - is growing. In advertising, for example, there is a lot of pressure to sound as dynamic as possible. One famous chain of hamburger restaurants has a very annoying slogan - "I'm loving it." That's bad English and I for one won't eat there any more! (Mark Shea – link above)

7. Adjectives Attributive function: BEFORE A NOUN Predicative function: AFTER A NOUN Pay attention when translating! Le vecchie tubature hanno ceduto Le tubature vecchie hanno ceduto (Serianni, Italiano (le Garzantine), Garzanti 1997) Adjectives are gradable, intensifiers precede them.

8. Adverbs They cannot appear in attributive position. Many end in –ly Adjuncts Manner Place Time Degree (they include intensifiers) Disjuncts (comment, ‘voice’) Conjuncts (relate sentences) wh- words How When Where Why See table 2.4

9. Pronouns Closed class ‘takes the place of a noun’ is not an accurate definition (See examples on p. 34) Primary pronouns table 2.1 Use of primary pronouns Italian vs. English Dependent > before the noun Independent > after the noun Gender issues (s/he; they; themself)

10. Pronouns One needs to know about dress codes. Very formal. Generic pronoun (different from substitute pronoun) Demostrative pronouns > deictic = their meaning is relative to the speaker or the context

11. Determiners They only occur at the beginning of a noun phrase (head noun + elements which belong or depend on that noun) all these large sugary doughnuts filled with jam and cream determiners Premodification Head noun postmodification

12. Determiners They can be divided into: Predeterminers Central determiners Postdeterminers Different from adjectives > restriction on the number and types of determiners which can occur in any noun phrase.

13. Determiners They will always be followed by a head noun. I really have had enough I really have had enough greasy chips Which is a determiner? Which is a pronoun? http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/determin/xdetm1.htm

14. Auxiliary verbs Very small group of verbs. They only occur in verb phrases, at the start of the phrase, before the lexical verb. Primary auxiliaries have, be, do Modal auxiliaries can, could, shall, etc. Do can be used for emphasis Modal auxiliaries provide shades of meaning

15. Epistemic, deontic, dynamic function Epistemic function > degree of certainty (intention, probability, possibility) Deontic function > degree of obligation (ability, permission, obligation) Dynamic function > making factual statements (habit, past ability, present ability)

16. Prepositions Preposition + noun phrase > prepositional phrase on the table noun phrase on the table prepositional phrase Simple = single word Complex = two or three words

17. Ex. 1 p. 71 Identify the different lexemes in the following sentence and group them into word classes (according to their function in this sentence) using their dictionary citation form: On disembarking at Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport, only a few steps inside the terminal, I am struck by a sign hanging from the ceiling that announces the ways to the arrivals hall, the exit and the transfer desks.

18. Homework Read Ballard’s book, pages 15-48 (2.1 - 2.13) Exercise 1, 2 page 71