1. Developmental Psychology

2. Studying Development Major Issues Nature vs. Nurture
How much is heredity?
How much is environment?
How do the two interact?
Critical and sensitive periods
Are some experiences especially important at particular ages?
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Is development continuous and gradual or progressing through distinct stages?
Stability vs. Change
Do our characteristics remain consistent as we age?

3. Studying Stages: Jean Piaget
Pioneer in Child Psychology
Studied his own children (and others) to help answer the question “How does knowledge grow?”
Suggested that children purposefully interact with their environment, learning and thinking in different ways through the stages of development.

4. 11–15 years of age through adulthood
Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage:
The infant constructs an understanding of the world
by coordinating sensory experiences with physical
actions: progressing from reflexive, instinctual action
at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward
end of the stage.
Birth to 2 years of age
Preoperational Stage:
The child begins to represent the world with words
and images. These words and images reflect
increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the
connection of sensory information and physical action.
2 to 7 years of age
Concrete Operational Stage:
The child can now reason logically about concrete
events and classify objects into different sets.
7 to 11 years of age
11–15 years of age through adulthood
Formal Operational Stage
The adolescent reasons in more abstract idealistic
and logical ways.
Figure 2.3

5. Studying Stages: Sigmund Freud
Stages focused on erogenous zones
Bodily areas which are chief focus of pleasure
These areas focus of emotional energy during stages
Key to development is “follow the energy”
Three aspects of each stage
Physical focus
Psychological Theme
Adult character types “fixated” at that stage

6. Freudian Stages Birth to 1½ yrs 1½ to 3 yrs 3 to 6 years
6 yrs to puberty
Puberty onward
Oral Stage
Infant’s
pleasure
centers on
mouth
Anal Stage
Child’s
pleasure
focuses on
anus
Phallic
Stage
Child’s
pleasure
focuses on
genitals
Latency
Stage
Child
represses
sexual
interest
and develops
social and
intellectual
skills
Genital
Stage
A time of
sexual
reawakening;
source of
pleasure
becomes
someone
outside of the
family
Figure 2.1

7. Studying Stages: Erik Erikson
Each stage characterized by conflict
Each conflict has bipolar outcomes
Individuals must experience both sides
Syntonic + (success)
Dystonic – (failure)
Stages are never completely resolved
Personality is a work in progress

8. Erikson’s Stages Developmental Period
Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages
Erikson’s Stages
Developmental Period
Trust vs Mistrust
Infancy (first year)
Autonomy vs shame & doubt
Infancy (1 to 3 years)
Initiative vs guilt
Early childhood (3 to 5 years)
Industry vs inferiority
Middle and late childhood
Identity vs identity confusion
Adolescence (10 to 20 years)
Intimacy vs isolation
Early adulthood (20s, 30s)
Generativity vs stagnation
Middle adulthood (40s, 50s)
Integrity vs despair
Late adulthood (60s onward)
Figure 2.2

9. Prenatal Development
At every stage of development, genetic and environmental influences affect our development.
Genetics: everything from hair color to skeletal structure to predispositions in temperament are passed on through our DNA
Stages:
Germinal: Weeks 1-2: cell division begins, zygote attaches to uterine wall
Embryonic: Weeks 3-8: formation of placenta, umbilical cord, beginning of organs; heartbeat is present by week 8
Fetal: Week 9 until birth: muscles strengthen, bodily systems develop. By 27 weeks the fetus attains the age of viability

10. Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development
Teratogens: external agents that cause abnormal prenatal development
Certain chemicals, diseases, and substances to which the mother is exposed can pass through the placenta and into the fetus.
Rubella can cause fetal blindness, deafness, heart defects, and mental retardation
25 % of fetuses born to mothers with untreated syphilis are stillborn
Without treatment or delivery by cesarean section, about 25% of fetuses born to mothers with HIV are also infected

11. Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: a group of severe abnormalities that results from prenatal exposure to alcohol
Most common: facial disfiguration and/or small, malformed brain
How much is too much?
Nicotine: Maternal smoking or regular, prolonged exposure to second-hand smoke increases the risk of miscarriage, premature birth, risk of respiratory infection, and low birth weight.
Drug use: use of illicit drugs during pregnancy typically results in fetal addiction, and impaired cognitive functioning.

12. Newborn (0-1 month) Physical: 20” long; 7.5 lbs.
Gross Motor: lifts chin
Fine Motor: n/a
Cognitive (Piaget):
Sensorimotor Period: The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions: progressing from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward end of the stage.
Reflex activity
Premoral
Language: Undifferentiated Crying
Emotional and Social: endogenous smile; moro reflex, distress
Stages:
Freud: Oral Stage
Erikson: Trust Vs. Mistrust

13. Newborns What can a baby do?
See, hear, smell, cry, smile, and respond to their environment
Moro reflex: brisk, symmetrical response to falling sensation; baby throws his arms wide and grabs for mom (aka startle reflex)
Babinski reflex: big toe flexes outward, other toes fan out when bottom of foot is stroked (aka plantar reflex)
Grasping reflex: infant grabs hold of any object placed in their hand (aka palmar reflex)
Rooting reflex: baby will open his mouth and turn toward the direction of anything that touches its cheek.
Sucking reflex: infant will suck on anything placed in its mouth
By two years of age, all of these reflexes will have disappeared, most are gone by four months of age.

14. The Newborn
It’s not all just “buzzing, blooming confusion,” as William James proposed.
Visual Acuity: Legally blind; can scan their environment and perceive some forms a few days after birth. Can reasonably see objects about 1 foot away.
Scent/Taste: distinguish different odors, can distinguish between their mothers scent and that of other women
Touch: sensitive to touch, if slow to respond
Hearing: fairly well developed; prefer human voices to other sounds, can distinguish their mother’s voice from that of other females; prefer sounds that became familiar to them in their last weeks of fetal development
Nifty factoid:
By the sixth month of prenatal development, the fetus is responsive to sound. They can hear their mother’s voice, and after birth prefer rhymes and stories that were read to them from this point onward.

15. Infant (2-6 months) Physical: 26” long; 16 lbs
Gross Motor: lifts head and chest; sits with support (4 mos); rolls over (5-6)
Fine Motor: reaches for objects (4); grasps objects (6)
Cognitive (Piaget):
Sensorimotor Period
Premoral
Object Permanence: If we can’t see it, it doesn’t exist
Language: Differentiated crying, cooing, babbling
Emotional and Social: social smile (2), laughter (4), delight
Stages:
Freud: Oral Stage
Erikson: Trust Vs. Mistrust

16. The Oral Stage Erogenous zone is the mouth Focus: satisfying hunger
Pleasure from
Sucking
Swallowing
Biting
Adult Manifestation:
crying, acting helpless, demanding satisfaction, and being "needy.“ (known as “oral-dependent” qualities)
over-eating, being overly talkative, smoking addictions, overindulging in confectionery, chewing on straws or gum, and even alcoholism (known as "oral dependent" qualities)
other symptoms include a sarcastic or "biting" personality (known as “oral sadistic” qualities)

17. Trust vs. Mistrust Predictability I am what I am given
Children rely on caregiver
Success: Failure:
+ Trust oneself/others Mistrust -

18. Infant (6-12 months) Physical: 29” long; 22 lbs
Gross Motor: sit by self (7); stand with help (8); crawl (9); pull to stand up (12)
Fine Motor: uses thumb to grasp (8); pincer grasp (12)
Cognitive (Piaget):
Sensorimotor Period
Premoral
Object Permanence: if we can’t see it, you must have hidden it. Will search for object, but will not note changes in hiding place, even if it is obvious
Language: imperfect imitation; first word (11); three words (12)
Emotional and Social: attachment to significant other; differentiated emotional responses
Stages:
Freud: Oral Stage
Erikson: Trust Vs. Mistrust

19. Moving from Infancy to Early Childhood
Maturation- the internally programmed growth of a child. (sequence is universal, though times/ages are not)
8 mos.
Pulls up
2 months:
Raises head
3 months:
Rolls over
9 mos.
Cruising
12 mos
Walking
10 mos
Creeping
4 mos.
Sit with support
6 mos.
Sit without support
11 mos
Standing

20. Moving from Infancy to Early Childhood
Cephalocaudal Principle: the tendency for development to proceed in a head-to-foot direction.
Infants’ heads are disproportionately large
Proximodistal Principle: states that development begins along the innermost parts of the body and continues toward the outermost parts.
Arms develop before hands and fingers

21. Environmental and Cultural Influences
Diet: malnutrition not only stunts general growth and brain development, but also is a major source of infant death worldwide.
Enriched Environment: infants need to interact with other people and suitable manipulatives (toys)
Physical Touch: very important; ex: massaging infants accelerates their weight gain and neurological development
Experience: if a child is not allowed to crawl/walk at will, they will do so later than the average infant
Three Principles:
Biology Sets Limits: ex. No infant can be toilet-trained before the nerve fibers that regulate bladder control have matured
Environment can be powerful: nurturing environments foster growth
Biological and Environmental factors interact: enriched environments enhance brain development, which facilitates our ability to learn and benefit from our environment

22. Toddler (12-18 months) Physical: 32” long; 25 lbs
Gross Motor: stands alone (13); walks alone (14); runs (18)
Fine Motor: mature grasp (14); marks with crayon (18)
Cognitive (Piaget):
Sensorimotor Period
Premoral
Object Permanence:
12 months: It’s not under this blanket, is it still here?
18 months: It’s not under this blanket, what did you do with it?
Language: expressive jargon; 2-word sentences (18)
Emotional and Social: separation anxiety (13-18)
Stages:
Freud: Oral Stage
Erikson: Trust Vs. Mistrust

23. The Young Brain Birth: 25% of its eventual adult weight
6 months: 50% of its adult weight
5 years: 90% of adult size
1st areas to mature are the deepest parts
Regulate basic survival functions
Frontal cortex develops last
Fully develops around 22 years of age
Neural Network Development

24. Representational Thought
Def: the intellectual ability of a child to picture something in his or her mind.
Generally demonstrated around 14 mos.
Child’s intelligence has moved to being thought as well as action.
Child can remember, process, and recreate things they have seen.

25. Toddler (18-24 months) Physical: 34” long; 27 lbs
Gross Motor: kicks ball (24)
Fine Motor: turns pages of a book (24)
Cognitive (Piaget):
Sensorimotor Period
Premoral
Development of Schema: invention of new meaning through mental combinations
Language: words; 2-3 word sentences
Emotional and Social: differentiation of emotional responses
Stages:
Freud: anal stage
Erikson: autonomy vs. shame and doubt

26. Changes in Thought A schema is a mental representation of the world.
Changes according to experience.
Applied to new experiences until the new experience can be fit into the schema (assimilation).
In order to include the new idea, we change the schema to fit the characteristics of the new object or idea (accommodation).

27. The Anal Stage Erogenous zone is the anus-buttocks region
Focus: controlling bowel movements
Psychological theme: self-control
Pleasure comes from
Bowel movements
Holding it in
Adult manifestation:
Anal-retentive character: stingy, with a compulsive seeking of order and tidiness. The person is generally stubborn and perfectionist.
Anal-expulsive character: has a lack of self control, being generally messy and careless.

28. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
Mastery of Self-control (1 ½ - 3 ½)
I am what I will be
Children discover their independence
Success Failure
+ Self-certainty + - Dependency, Shame -

29. Toddler (24-36 months) Physical: 38”; 32 lbs
Gross Motor: walks up and down stairs well, rides tricycle
Fine Motor: feeds self well
Cognitive (Piaget):
Preoperational period: The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.
Premoral
Language: 900 words; 3-4 word sentences
Emotional and Social: anger/temper tantrums
Stages:
Freud: anal stage
Erikson: autonomy vs. shame and doubt

30. Early Childhood (3-6 years)
Physical: height varies- approx. 48”
Gross Motor: walks backward, throw/catch ball, swim, ride bicycle
Fine Motor: writes letters, draws simple objects, ties shoes
Cognitive (Piaget):
Preoperational period
Premoral
Language: can be completely understood, read simple books, 2500 words
Emotional and Social: validation; defiance
Stages:
Freud: phallic stage
Erikson: initiative vs. guilt

31. The Phallic Stage Pleasure comes from penis/clitoris (focus)
Theme: what it means to be a boy or girl
Boys
Castration anxiety
Identification of the aggressor (father)
Oedipus Complex
Girls
Penis envy
Blames mother
Electra Complex (castration complex)
Ends when child identifies with the parent of the same sex and represses its sexual instincts,

32. Initiative vs. Guilt Are ventures praised or punished? (3 ½ - 6)
I am what I can imagine I will be
Children given greater interactions and responsibility
Success Failure
+ Purpose/Ambition Fear/Guilt –
Self-Confidence Low Self-esteem

33. Middle-Late Childhood (7-10 years)
Physical: height varies ”
Gross Motor: active/able participation in sports of all kinds
Fine Motor: writes print and cursive, draws detailed pictures, demonstrates dexterity
Cognitive (Piaget):
Concrete-operational period: The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.
Conservation: The principle that a given quantity does not change when its appearance is changed. (age 7-8)
Concrete-operational moral reasoning: good understanding of rules – play to win – do not understand that rules can be negotiated
Language: reads well, has an increasingly complex vocabulary, enjoys verbal humor
Emotional and Social: continues to develop relationships independent of parents, still look for validation
Stages:
Freud: phallic stage
Erikson: initiative vs. guilt

34. Latency Period Oedipus/Electra complex repressed
Sexual energy sublimated
Child identifies with parent of same sex, prefers to associate with them.

35. Industry vs. Inferiority
Apprenticeship of life (6 - 10)
I am what I learn to make work
Children gain knowledge and skills
Success: Failure:
+ Feelings of Competence + - Futility –
Social Skills

36. Adolescence (11-19 years) Physical: achieve adult height
Gross/Fine Motor: refine physical activity, demonstrates complete physical control
Cognitive (Piaget):
Formal operational period**: The adolescent reasons in more abstract idealistic and logical ways.
Formal Moral Reasoning: after about 10 children's moral reasoning becomes autonomous – and they can begin to think about moral issues for themselves
Language: reads on an adult level, understands the subtleties of language, enjoys verbal humor
Emotional and Social: continues to develop relationships independent of parents, still looks for validation
Stages:
Freud: genital stage
Erikson: identity vs. identity confusion

37. Piaget’s Stages of Development
Data from adolescent populations indicates  only 30 to 35% of high school seniors attain the cognitive development stage of formal operations (Kuhn, Langer, Kohlberg & Haan, 1977).

38. Piaget’s Stages of Development
Sensorimotor stage (Infancy). In this period, intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.
Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood). In this period (which has two sub-stages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a non-logical, nonreversible manner. Egocentric thinking predominates
Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.
Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.

39. Social Context
Social factors influence performance on Piaget’s tests (Vygotsky) and development in general
Guidance from a parent, sibling, or teacher can help them solve the problems.
Zone of proximal development: the difference between what a child can do independently and what the child can do with assistance from adults or more advanced peers
Example:
2nd sibling effect: having older siblings around the house stimulates a younger child’s development (cognitive and physical).

40. Genital Stage
Sexual interest begins to focus on members of opposite sex
Aimed toward reproduction
More investment of psychic energy in external object-choices rather than own body (theme)
Sexual partner
Children, social interests
Begins with the onset of puberty

41. Identity vs. Identity Confusion
“to be normal during the adolescent period is by itself abnormal”
-- Anna Freud
Identity vs. Identity Confusion
Adolescence ( )
Who am I?
Teens develop sense of self and goals
Never resolved “once and for all”
Revisited during life transitions (graduation, job, marriage, parenthood, retirement).
Success: Failure:
+comfortable with+ -identity confusion-
self/others negative identity

42. Creating a Chart
With your group, create a visual chart of Piaget’s, Erickson’s, or Freud’s stages of cognitive development (assigned), using drawings or pictures to represent the major accomplishments of each stage.
You may use PowerPoint, Prezi, or Glogster to create the chart.
Due Friday.

43. Beyond Puberty
Erikson is the only early developmental psychologist who considered development to extend beyond puberty.
Piaget’s final stage (formal operational) may or may not actually be achieved during a person’s lifetime.
Freud theorized that the adult personality was, of course, represented by the genital stage, but that fixations began to manifest after puberty.

44. Erikson’s Stages Developmental Period
Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages
Erikson’s Stages
Developmental Period
Trust vs Mistrust
Infancy (first year)
Autonomy vs shame & doubt
Infancy (1 to 3 years)
Initiative vs guilt
Early childhood (3 to 5 years)
Industry vs inferiority
Middle and late childhood
Identity vs identity confusion
Adolescence (10 to 20 years)
Intimacy vs isolation
Early adulthood (20s, 30s)
Generativity vs stagnation
Middle adulthood (40s, 50s)
Integrity vs despair
Late adulthood (60s onward)
Figure 2.2

45. Intimacy vs. Isolation Early adult (20 – 30) We are what we love
young adults test out relationships and friendships, learn to compromise independence and accept responsibility
Success: Failure:
+ Intimacy Detachment, promiscuity –

46. Generativity vs. Stagnation
Middle Adulthood (30 – 50)
Marriage, giving birth (to “care”)
I am what I can produce
start thinking about contributions to future generations
Success: Failure:
+ expansion of ego stereotypical-
vigor mundane

47. Ego-Integrity vs. Despair
Late Adulthood (60+)
Integration of all prior stages
I am what survives me
aged look back on life: crises, aspirations, accomplishments
Success: Failure:
+wholeness+ -feelings of futility-
satisfaction with life disappointment

48. Looking Back at Erikson
Do other cultures go through the same stages?
How are the stages affected by cultural changes within our society?
decline of families and extended families
nursing homes
respect for elders vs. ageism