1. DIGITAL 2 : EKT 221

2. Today’s Outline Register Transfer Clock Gating Load Control Feedback Register Transfer Language Type of Registers Basic Symbols Mathematical & Logical Symbols RTL Arithmetic Operations Conditional Register Transfer

3. LOAD ENABLE Transfer of new info into register is referred to as LOADING the register PARALLEL LOADING : when all bits loaded simultaneously on clock pulse (same source). A control signal is used to control the clock cycles. Using this control, input clock pulses are prevented from reaching the register when its content is not to be changed.

4. REGISTERS Definition : Registers consist of a set of Flip- flops (FFs), together with gates that implement their state transition 1 FFs = 1 bit Therefore, n bit register – n number of FFs Registers are useful for storing and manipulating information.(eg: arithmetic, logical, boolean)

5. Example : 4 bit Register D D D D D0D0 D1D1 D2D2 D3D3 CLK CLEAR Q0Q0 Q1Q1 Q2Q2 Q3Q3 Q0Q0 Q1Q1 Q2Q2 Q3Q3 D0D0 D1D1 D2D2 D3D3 4 BIT REGISTER SYMBOL LOGIC DIAGRAM Clear = Active LOW Clear = 0 = reset register

6. LOAD as Control Signal LOAD CLK CLK input to Flip Flop CLK LOAD CLK FF -When Load =1, CLK FF will follow the CLK (Master Clock) input. - When CLK FF has a PGT (+ve going Transition) new data will be loaded into register Q0Q0 Q1Q1 Q2Q2 Q3Q3 D0D0 D1D1 D2D2 D3D3 CLEAR Data Transfer

7. REGISTER with Clock Gating Load signal is used to enable the clock signal to pass through if 1 and prevent the clock signal from passing through if 0. This is called a clock gating. What logic is needed for gating? CLK + LOAD What is the problem? Gated Clock to FF Clock Skew of gated clocks with respect to clock or each other * Skew = Clock Signals arrive at different FFs or REG at different times

8. REGISTERS with Load Controlled Feedback A more reliable way to selectively load a register: – Run the clock continuously, and – Selectively use a load control to change the register contents. Example: 2-bit register with Load Control: For Load = 0,loads register contents (hold current values) For Load = 1,loads input values (load new values) Hardware more complex than clock gating, but free of timing problems Load Input1 Input2 Feedback Input x Load

9. Register Transfer Language (RTL)

10. HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE Example : C+, VB, JAVA ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE Example : uP and uC OPCODE MICROCODE Mircocode (Micro-operations): Operations executed on data stored in registers, performed in one clock cycle Register Transfer Language (RTL): Symbolic notation used to describe micro-operations Register Transfer Language (RTL)

11. RTL Is an algebraic notation used to define machine level operations It is not executed by a computer It is used to explain how the computer works. Example: In 68000 assembly language instruction ADD#3, D2 is define in RTL as [D2] [D2] + 3 Register Transfer Language (RTL)

12. Types of Registers AR (Address Registers) DR (Data Registers) PC (Program Counters) IR (Instruction Registers) Rn (n indicates the Register number, eg R2)

13. Block Diagram of Registers R PC(H) Register 16 bit Register 7 8 bit Register 6543210 Bit 7Bit 0 15141312111098 76543210 Bit 16 Bit 0 PC(L) 8 bit = 1 byte H = High order byte L = Low order byte PC(H) = PC(15:8) PC(L) = PC(7:0)

14. BASIC SYMBOLS R followed by a number is referring to a register: R2 = second register/register no 2 R2

15. BASIC SYMBOLS M refers to Memory with addresses in square braces: Direct Addressing : M[10] = contents of memory address 10 In this example, M[10] refers to 10111011 10000000 10111011 11111111 9 10 11 AddressContent MEMORY

16. BASIC SYMBOLS M refers to Memory with addresses in square braces In-direct Addressing : M[R3] = content of the memory address in R3 10000000 10111011 11111111 15 16 17 AddressContent MEMORY 10000000 00000110 00001111 1 2 3 AddressContent REGISTER 00001111 = 15 Ans : M[R3] refers to 10000000

17. BASIC SYMBOLS Arrow pointing to the right shows transfer of data : R4R3 = Stores the value of R3 to R4 * The word transfer is misleading, since it implies that data is moved from one location to another. In fact, the data is copied from one location to another since it also still resides in register R3

18. BASIC SYMBOLS A comma represents simultaneous transfer: R1 R2, R6 R7 = Stores R2 into R1 and at the same time stores R7 into R6.

19. BASIC SYMBOLS Parenthesis indicates part of the register. R8(1) = bit 1of R8 R8 76534210 10111000 Bit Position Content MSB LSB LSB : Least Significant Bit MSB : Most Significant Bit

20. BASIC SYMBOLS Parenthesis indicates part of the register. R3(7:0) = the least significant byte of R3 Note : 1 byte = 8 bit R3 76534210 10111000 14..9158 1 0..1

21. MATHEMATICAL AND LOGICAL SYMBOLS Addition is indicated by the + sign: R1R2+R3 Add R2 and R3, stores in R1 R2R4+R1 Add R4 and R1, stores in R2 Example 1 : Example 2 :

22. MATHEMATICAL AND LOGICAL SYMBOLS Subtraction is handled not with the minus sign but with complementing. 1’s complement : 2’s complement : R5R3+R4 R5R3+R4+1 R3 minus R4 in 1’s complement R3 minus R4 in 2’s complement

23. MATHEMATICAL AND LOGICAL SYMBOLS QUIZ : Minus R2 from R1 and stores the answer in R8 (use 2’s comp method) RTL : R8 R1+R2+1 What is the value of R8 if R1 = 01000100 and R2 = 00100011.

24. Summary SymbolDescriptionExample Square bracketsSpecifies an address for memory M[R2] LettersDenotes a registerAR, IR, PC, R2 ParenthesesDenotes part of a register R2(1), R2(7:0), PC(L) ArrowDenotes Transfer of dataR1 R2 CommaSeparates simultaneous transfers R1 R2, R3 R2

25. Arithmetic Operations + Addition - Subtraction * Multiplication / Division Example:R2R1+R2 Example:R2R1+R2+1 Example:R2R1*R2 Example:R2R1/R2

26. Conditional Register Transfer Conditional Statement Using control signal to control the transfer Can be symbolised by if-then statement If (K 1 = 1) then (R2 R1) In RTL we can write it as: K 1 : R2 R1 A subscripted letter followed by a colon is a conditional

27. Conditional Register Transfer R2 R1 K1K1 CLK n K1K1 Transfer occurs here n = no of lines = no of bits Transfer occurs in parallel K 1 : R2 R1

28. Conditional Register Transfer Content of R2 will be stored in R5 when condition K 1 occurs: R5 R2 K K1 :R5 R2 Example:

29. Summary Note : Any register may be specified for source 1, source 2, or destination.

30. Thank You