1. Slide 1 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development 6e John W. Santrock Chapter Fifteen: Peers and the Sociocultural Word

2. Slide 2 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Exploring peer relations –Peer Group Functions Peers: individuals about the same age or maturity level Peer groups provide source of information and comparison about world outside the family Peer influences and evaluations can be negative or positive

3. Slide 3 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Adult-child and peer relations –Parent influences on peer relations Choice of neighborhoods, churches, schools Recommend strategies to handle disputes or become less shy Encourage children to be tolerant or resist peer pressure Provide emotional base from which to explore peer relations

4. Slide 4 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Peer contexts –Interaction influenced by context; situation, location, culture –Individual differences affecting peer relations Personality traits (shy, outgoing) Trait of emotional negativity; easily angered Status and power conveyed/afforded

5. Slide 5 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Developmental changes in childhood –Early Childhood Frequency of peer interaction increases –Middle/Late Childhood Children spend increasing time in peer interaction –Average time spent 10% of time spent with peers at age 2 20% of time spent with peers at age 4 40% of time spent with peers during ages 7-11

6. Slide 6 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Social cognition –Thoughts about social matters Five steps in processing information about social world –Decode social cues –Interpret –Search for response –Select optimal response –Enact Affects ability to get along with peers

7. Slide 7 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Emotional Regulation and Peer Relations –Five peer statuses Popular – often designated a best friend, rarely disliked Average – receive average positive/negative ratings Neglected – rarely nominated a best friend, not disliked Rejected – actively disliked, infrequently nominated as best friend Controversial – frequently nominated as best friend and being disliked

8. Slide 8 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Bullying –Physical or verbal behavior with harmful intent –Significant numbers victimized Boys and younger middle school students Victims of bullies reported more loneliness and difficulty in making friends Those who did the bullying more likely to have low grades, smoke and drink alcohol Both victims and bullies had more health problems than other children

9. Slide 9 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 15.1 - Bullying Behaviors Among U.S. Youth

10. Slide 10 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence To reduce bullying –Use older peers as monitors –Develop school-wide rules and sanctions –Form friendship groups for victims –Be more aware of where bullying behaviors occur –Sponsor antibullying program in all settings –Parents reinforce positive behaviors, role model –Early intervention, teach bullies appropriate skills

11. Slide 11 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Gender and Peer Relations –Gender composition From age 3, children prefer same-sex groups –Group size From age 6, boys prefer larger groups –Interaction in same-sex groups Boys: organized group games, rough-and-tumble Girls: collaborative discourse

12. Slide 12 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Adolescent Peer Relations –Peer pressure — peers play powerful roles –Cliques and crowds — to be liked and included Cliques: Small groups averaging 5 or 6; usually same sex and age Crowd: larger than cliques, less personal than cliques –Important role in one’s development in all cultures –Cross-cultural comparisons and variations

13. Slide 13 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Friendship Six Functions of Friendship –Companionship –Stimulation –Physical support –Ego support –Social comparison –Affection/intimacy Intimacy in friendship: self-disclosure and sharing of private thoughts

14. Slide 14 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Friendship Friendship during Childhood –Children use friends as cognitive and social resources –Not all friends and friendships are equal Supportive friendships advantageous Coercive, conflict-ridden friendships not –Friends generally similar: age, sex, ethnicity, and many other factors (“homophily”)

15. Slide 15 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Friendship Friendship during Adolescence –Peer popularity is strong motivator Younger teens prefer smaller groups, more intimacy –Sullivan: peers help shape development Sources of attachment, play, intimacy, social fulfillment Reassurance of worth, sharing of information –Peers have strong influence through association Age range/knowledge of peers can influence behaviors

16. Slide 16 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Friendship Friendship during Adolescence –Gender differences Girls more intimate with friends than boys, more open in self-disclosure –Personal disclosure has negative and positive consequences for girls More risk of delinquent behavior when friends are older, boys focus on power and excitement –Early maturing: more risk for delinquent behavior

17. Slide 17 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure15.3 - Developmental Changes in Self-Disclosing Conversations

18. Slide 18 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Friendship Adult friendship –Comparison of childhood friends to adult friends: similarities preferred — occupational status, age, marital status, income, education, gender, religion, ethnicity –Gender Differences Women: more close friends; more intimate; talk more Men: more competitive; engage in activities (outdoors) More cross-gender friendships; still prefer same-gender

19. Slide 19 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Friendship Friendship in late adulthood –Choose close friends over new friends Content with small, close social network Tend to have less intense positive emotions with new friends; equal level with old friends –Research results: Depression linked to social contacts limited to family Close ties with old friends extends life span Unwed older adults with friend-focused network healthier than unweds restricted to family, little friend contact

20. Slide 20 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Play and Leisure Childhood –Play: enjoyable activity for its own sake –Piaget: cognitive development constrains the way child plays –Functions of play Tension release, master anxiety and conflicts –Play therapy Practice competencies and skills; learning that’s fun –Vygotsky: play is good for creative thought

21. Slide 21 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Play and Leisure Childhood –Types of play Sensorimotor – infant behavior for exploring Practice – repetition for physical and mental mastery Pretense/symbolic – “golden age” of make-believe Social – interaction with peers, sharing and cooperating Constructive – self-regulated creation of something, focus and concentration Games – engaged in for pleasure, have rules to follow

22. Slide 22 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Play and Leisure Adolescence –Leisure: Pleasant times after work or school when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their choosing U.S. adolescents spend more time than those in other industrialized countries –Most time in unstructured leisure activities –Most time in voluntary structured activities Critics: too much unstructured leisure activity — TV and “hanging out”

23. Slide 23 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Play and Leisure Adulthood –Leisure Can include reading, hobbies, sports Many adults do not engage in activities Mid-life changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure Adults at midlife need to begin preparing psychologically for retirement Vacations extend life span, lowers risk of heart disease

24. Slide 24 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Aging and the Social World Social theories of aging –Disengagement theory To cope effectively, older adults should gradually withdraw from society Lessen emotional ties, have more self-preoccupation Outdated for today’s world –Activity theory The more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives Today’s older adults are more active than ever before

25. Slide 25 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Aging and the Social World Stereotyping of older adults –Ageism Prejudice against other people because of age, especially prejudice against older adults Most based on assumed frailty and ailments of age –Personal consequences of negative stereotyping can be serious

26. Slide 26 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Aging and the Social World Social Support and Social Integration –Important physical and psychological impact Social convoy model of social relations — go through life embedded in personal network of individuals that give social support Helps those of all ages cope Improves mental and physical health Linked to reduced symptoms of disease Linked to longevity Emotionally positive contact lowers depression

27. Slide 27 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Aging and the Social World Successful aging –Positive dimensions ignored too long Proper diet, technology, medical advances, and active lifestyle prolong and enhance quality of life Related to perceived control over one’s environment (self-efficacy) –Social integration is very important Being lonely and isolated – a significant health factor Centenarians – optimistic and very happy

28. Slide 28 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Culture –A broad concept Behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation Ideas, values, assumptions that guide one’s behavior –Global interdependence is inescapable reality All are citizens of the world Better understanding promotes effective interactions

29. Slide 29 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Culture –Relevance for life span development Individualism — giving priority to personal goals rather than to group goals; emphasizing values that serve the self Collectivism — emphasizing values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals to preserve group integrity, interdependence of members, and harmonious relationships

30. Slide 30 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Culture –Consider self-terms of psychology Individualistic focus –Self-actualization, self-awareness –Self-efficacy, self-doubts –Self-reinforcement, self-criticism –Self-serving, selfishness Individualistic cultures –Personal choice, intrinsic motivation, self-esteem, and self-maximization

31. Slide 31 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Technology, media and culture –Major impact on many children in the world Positive and negative effects Criticisms: –Books about today’s youth — Dumbest Generation –Employers spending $1.3 billion to teach employees writing skills –iPods and YouTube impair thinking skills?

32. Slide 32 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Aging and Culture –Older persons Have valuable knowledge Control key family/community resources Remain useful and valued as long as possible Have role continuity throughout yje life span Engage in age-related role changes Is integrated into the extended family Get greatest respect in collectivistic cultures

33. Slide 33 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Socioeconomic Status –Grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics Number depends on community’s size, complexity Low SES and middle SES –Each could have many subcategories –SES variations in neighborhoods, schools Each level views education differently

34. Slide 34 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Psychological Ramifications of Poverty –Poverty: U.S. rates continue to increase Tends to follow ethnic lines Highest for children of all industrialized nations –Psychological effects of poverty Powerless, vulnerable, no financial resources Inadequate housing, at-risk environment, etc. Long term effects: chronic health problems

35. Slide 35 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Ramifications of Poverty –Who is poor? Women — feminization of poverty –Single mothers; single fathers Families and poverty –Economic pressure linked with parenting –Benefits to parents help children Poverty, aging, and ethnicity –Overall more among women and ethnic minorities; more than 25% of older women –Ethnic diversity continues to increase

36. Slide 36 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Ethnicity –Ethnicity and socioeconomic status Difficult to separate influences of ethnicity and SES Minorities overrepresented in lower SES may cause exaggeration of negative ethnic influences Links between acculturation and adolescent problems –Poverty higher among minority immigrants

37. Slide 37 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Ethnicity –Ethnicity and families Families vary by size, structure, composition, levels of income and education, kinship networks, and how family monitors/regulates behaviors More single families in some groups Ethnic minority parents are less educated Children experience double disadvantage –Do not escape prejudice and discrimination –Stressful effects of poverty felt

38. Slide 38 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociocultural Influences Ethnicity –Ethnicity and differences Recognizing differences important to getting along in diverse world Differences among ethnic groups too often conceived by majority as deficits of minorities –Damaging to minorities Diversity within ethnic groups

39. Slide 39 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The End