1. Ch.8 Looking at Interlanguage Processing By Kelly 黃宣綺 Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (2008). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge.

2. 8.1 Introduction Emphasis on Psycholinguistic processing: Actual processing mechanisms.

3. 8.2 connectionist / Emergentist Models Connectionism: A cover term that includes a number of network architecture. - PDP: Parallel Distributed Processing - Activation or use. - Learning: Through exposure to repeated patterns -Frequency affect. N. Ellis andSchmidt (1997) -A function of age : less establishing connestionist pattern. (Sokolik 1990)

4. Competition Model -Conflicts between native language and target language cues and cue strengths. -Form and function cannot be separated. -Concerned with how language is used. -Speakers must have a way to determine relationships among elements in a sentence. Cue: word order / meaning and animacy / morphology * (8-1) The cows eat the grass (P.222, English / Italian) * (8-1) The cows eat the grass (P.222, English / Italian) * (8-2) The grass eats the cows. (Competition) * (8-3 ~ 8-6, P.223)

5. Question: Speech-processing mechanism: NL to TL. How??? Possibilities: -L2 sentence interpretation (8-7, p.223) -Meaning-based / grammar-based -Difficulty in the interpretation: 1. L2 proficiency 2. Differences between syntax-based languages and meaning-based languages. and meaning-based languages.

6. 8.3 Processing approaches Processing mechanisms Capacities of the human brain How they operate when dealing L2 1. Processability Theory (8.3.1) 2. Information processing: automaticity, restructuring, and U-shaped learning.(8.3.2) restructuring, and U-shaped learning.(8.3.2) 3. Input Processing (8.3.3)

7. 8.3.1 Processability Theory Relies on the Concept of a linguistic processor - deal with movements. How processor made for prediction – developmental paths that learners take. 1. Canonical order strategy. 2. Initialization/finalization strategy 3. Subordinate clause strategy (p.227) Table 8.1 (p.228)

8. Processability Hierarchy: grammatical information. - ordering of procedures - : p.229 1. no procedure (ef. Single word utterances) 1. no procedure (ef. Single word utterances) 2. category procedure (eg. adding a plural morpheme to a noun) 2. category procedure (eg. adding a plural morpheme to a noun) 3. noun phrase procedure 3. noun phrase procedure 4. verb phrase procedure (e.g. movement of elements within a verb phrase) 4. verb phrase procedure (e.g. movement of elements within a verb phrase) 5. sentence procedure (e.g. subject-verb agreement) 5. sentence procedure (e.g. subject-verb agreement) 6. subordinate clause procedure 6. subordinate clause procedure (e.g. use of a particular tense based on something in the main (e.g. use of a particular tense based on something in the main clause) clause)

9. -Learners : to avoid the complexity of movement. e.g. (8-11) Where the cats are? (8-12) What the cat doing in your picture? (8-12) What the cat doing in your picture? (8-13) Do you have an animal? (8-13) Do you have an animal? (8-14) Does in this picture there is a cat? (8-14) Does in this picture there is a cat?

10. 8.3.2 Information processing: automaticity, restructuring, and U-shaped learning Assumption of Automaticity and Restructuring: - Human beings have a limited capacity for processing. Automaticity: To control over one’s linguistic knowledge. One must bring together a number of skills from perceptual, cognitive and social domains. Restructuring: - The changes made to internalized representations as a result of new learning. - Additional information which must be organized and structured.

11. 8.3.2.1 Automaticity and restructuring Automaticity: - e.g. play tennis: auto reaction to move your feet and racket. - fast, unconscious, and effortless - A consistent and rgular association between certain kind of input and some output pattern, automatization may result. e.g. Speaker 1: Hi. Speaker 2: Hi, how are you? Speaker 2: Hi, how are you? Speaker 1: Fine, and you? Speaker 1: Fine, and you? Speaker 2: Fine. Speaker 2: Fine.

12. - Role of Monitoring is important: -Pay attention to one’s speech -Through careful monitoring of one’s own speech, one can pick out successful utterances and use them as a basis for future practice. (see Crookes, 1991) -Controlled processing is another mechanism of language use. -Slower response -Various ways in which learners can “attack” the process of learning a second language. (Table 8.2)

13. Restructuring: - Which take places: 1.When qualitative changes occur in internal representation in SL 1.When qualitative changes occur in internal representation in SL 2. In the change in the use of procedures. 2. In the change in the use of procedures. >from “inefficient” to “efficient” 3. Table 8.3 Evidence of restructuring 3. Table 8.3 Evidence of restructuring (restructuring takes place at Time 3) (restructuring takes place at Time 3)

14. 8.3.2.2 U-shaped learning A consequence of restructuring Three stages of linguistic use - Figure 8.1 Schema of U-shaped behavior (P.237) Stage 1: Learner produces some linguistic form that conforms to target-like norms.(i.e. error free) Stage 2: Learner appears to lose what have known at Stage 1. Stage 3: Again correct TL usage as Stage 1.

15. E.g. French learners of English among sixth, seventh, and eighth grade: - Use of ing (Figure 8.2 p.238) Grade 6: He is taking a cake. Grade 6: He is taking a cake. Grade 7: He take a cake. Grade 7: He take a cake. Grade 8: He is taking a cake. Grade 8: He is taking a cake.

16. 8.3.3 Input Processing How learners comprehend utterances? How learners assign form-meaning relationships? 1. The primacy of Meaning Principle 2. The First Noun Principle Other approaches to the processing of in input:Other approaches to the processing of in input: 1. Computational system1. Computational system 2. Autonomous Induction: example-input- generalizations.2. Autonomous Induction: example-input- generalizations. 3. Parsing system: adult – syntactic info. / children – semantic info.3. Parsing system: adult – syntactic info. / children – semantic info.

17. 8.4 Knowledge types Acquisition – Learning (8.4.1) - Acquisition: 1. Subconscious process 2. “feel” and “sound” for correctness and grammatical sentences. - Learning: 1. Conscious knowledge. 2. Being able to talk about the rules.

18. 8.4.2 Declarative / procedural - Declarative: Declarative memory underlies learning and storage of facts. underlies learning and storage of facts. (e.g. Newfoundland dogs are generally black) (e.g. Newfoundland dogs are generally black) - Procedural: To motor and cognitive skills that involve sequencing information. involve sequencing information.

19. 8.4.3 Implicit / explicit - Implicit: 1. Acquisition of knowledge about input. 1. Acquisition of knowledge about input. 2. naturally, simply and unconscious of complex, structure processing. 2. naturally, simply and unconscious of complex, structure processing. - Explicit: Conscious operation.

20. 8.4.4 Representation and control - Representation: the level of analysis and mental organization of linguistic information. mental organization of linguistic information. e.g. (8-19~8-22,p.244) e.g. (8-19~8-22,p.244) Lookit, like that. Lookit, like that. Looky, chicken. Looky, chicken. Lookit gas. Lookit gas. Lookit four. Lookit four.

21. - Control: Use linguistic knowledge to control output. e.g. (8-26~8-29 p.245) I wanted him to come. I persuaded him to come. I enjoyed talking to my teacher. I stopped sending packages to my friend.

22. 8.5 Interface of knowledge types No interface (8.5.1) Weak interface (8.5.2) We only think about what we said when we stumble. Strong interface (8.5.3 ) Practice is necessary to ensure that particular behaviors are quick, and with diminished attention paid to the particular task.

23. 8.6 Psycholinguistic constructs Attention (8.6.1) - The concentration of the mental powers upon an object. upon an object. - Major component: Detection - From the perspective of its differential role on different parts of the grammar role on different parts of the grammar (lexicon, morphosyntax, syntax) (lexicon, morphosyntax, syntax) Gass, Svetics, and Lemelin (2003) Gass, Svetics, and Lemelin (2003)

24. Working memory (8.6.2) -The structures and processes that humans use to store and manipulate information. -E.g. When you want to remember a phone number and you do not have pen and paper to write it down, you will repeat the number over and over until you can get to a phone to dial the number or can find pen and paper to write it down.

25. Monitoring (8.6.3) -Figure 8.3 Acquisition and learning in second language production. (p.253) -Three conditions: 1. Time 2. Focus on form 2. Focus on form 3. Know the rule 3. Know the rule - Self-correction is the result of monitoring.

26. 8.7 Conclusion Psycholinguistic approaches to the study of SLA. -L2 learners organize their SL knowledge -How learner use L2 knowledge -How subsequent learning affects the restructured organization of L2 knowledge -Suggestion: move to social and contextual variables