1. 14—Moral Development Domains of Moral Development
Contexts of Moral Development
Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Summary

2. Domains of Moral Development
What Is Moral Development?
Moral Development
Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong.
Intrapersonal dimension: regulates a person’s activities when she or he is not engaged in social interaction
Interpersonal dimension: regulates social interactions and arbitrates conflict.

3. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought
Piaget’s Theory
Piaget concluded that children think in two distinct ways about morality, depending on their developmental maturity.
Heteronomous morality—The first stage of moral development in Piaget’s theory, occurs from 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.

4. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought: Piaget (continued)
There is a transitional period from 7 to 10 years of age, when children show features of both the first and second stages of moral development.
Autonomous Morality—The second stage of moral development in Piaget’s theory, displayed by children about 10 years of age and older. The child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people and that, in judging an action, one should consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.

5. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought: Piaget (continued)
The heteronomous thinker believes in immanent justice—if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately.
Children become more sophisticated in thinking about social matters as they develop, particularly through the give-and-take of peer relations.

6. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought
Kohlberg’s Theory
Kohlberg believed that moral development is primarily based on moral reasoning and unfolds in a series of three levels of moral thinking, each characterized by two stages.

7. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Theory (continued)
Preconventional Reasoning: The lowest level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, when good and bad are interpreted in terms of external rewards and punishments.
Stage 1. Heteronomous morality—moral thinking is tied to punishment.
Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange—what is right involves an equal exchange.

8. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Theory (continued)
Conventional Reasoning: The second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards of others, such as parents or the government.
Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity—individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgments.
Stage 4. Social systems morality—moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty.

9. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Theory (continued)
Postconventional Reasoning: The highest level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development in which individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and decide on a personal moral code.
Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights—individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law.
Stage 6. Universal ethical principles—individuals develop a moral standard based on universal human rights.

10. Domains of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Three Levels and Six Stages of Moral Development
Refer to Figure 14.1

11. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Reasoning at Kohlberg’s Stages in Response to the “Heinz and the Druggist” Story
Refer to Figure 14.2

12. Domains of Moral Development
Age and the Percentage of Individuals at Each Kohlberg Stage
Refer to Figure 14.3

13. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Theory (continued)
Influences on the Kohlberg Stages
Kohlberg believed that children’s moral orientation reflected their cognitive development and their experiences dealing with moral questions and moral conflict.
Kohlberg believed that peer interaction is a critical part of the social stimulation that challenges children to change their moral reasoning.

14. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought (continued)
Kohlberg’s Critics
Moral Thought and Moral Behavior
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough emphasis on moral behavior.
Assessment of Moral Reasoning
Some developmentalists fault the quality of Kohlberg’s research and believe that more attention should be paid to the way moral development is assessed.

15. Domains of Moral Development
Actual Moral Dilemmas Generated by Adolescents
Refer to Figure 14.4

16. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Critics (continued)
Culture and Moral Development
Some argue that Kohlberg’s view is culturally biased (Banks, 1993; Miller, 1995).
Although Kohlberg’s approach does capture much of the moral reasoning voiced in various cultures around the world, his approach misses or misconstrues some important moral concepts in particular cultures (Gibbs, 2003; Lapsley & Narvaez, 2004; Walker, 2004).

17. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Critics (continued)
Families and Moral Development
Kohlberg believed that family processes are essentially unimportant in children’s moral development.
Other developmentalists emphasize that inductive discipline, which uses reasoning and focuses children’s attention on the consequences of their actions, positively influences moral development; and parents’ moral values influence children’s developing moral thoughts.

18. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Critics (continued)
Gender and the Care Perspective
Gilligan believes Kohlberg’s theory, based on a male norm, puts abstract principles above relationships and reflects a gender bias.
Justice perspective—Focuses on individual rights; individuals independently make moral decisions.
Care perspective—Emphasized by Carol Gilligan, this perspective views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others.

19. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Critics (continued)
Social Conventional Reasoning
Some theorists and researchers argue that it is important to distinguish between moral reasoning and social conventional reasoning.
Social Conventional Reasoning—Thoughts about social consensus and convention, which are arbitrarily determined; in contrast, moral rules are obligatory, widely accepted, and somewhat impersonal.

20. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Behavior
Basic Processes:
Based on Basic Learning Principles.
Behavior is situation-specific; however, although moral behavior is influenced by situational determinants, some children are more likely than others to cheat, lie, and steal.
Reinforcement, punishment, imitation, and the situation only partially account for moral behavior.

21. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Behavior (continued)
Resistance to Temptation and Self-Control
A key ingredient of moral development from the social cognitive perspective is a child’s ability to resist temptation and to develop self-control (Bandura, 1986; Mischel, 1986);
Self-control is influenced by cognitive factors (Mischel, 2004).

22. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Behavior (continued)
Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive theory of morality distinguishes between moral competence (the ability to perform moral behaviors) and moral performance (performing those behaviors in specific situations).
Moral competencies—what individuals are capable of doing; the outgrowth of cognitive-sensory processes.

23. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Behavior: Social Cognitive Theory (continued)
Moral performance is determined by motivation and the rewards and incentives to act in a moral way.
Bandura (1991, 2002, 2004) believes that moral development is best understood by considering a combination of social and cognitive factors, especially those involving self control; self-regulation (not abstract reasoning) is the key to positive moral development.

24. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Feeling
Psychoanalytic Theory
In Freud’s view, guilt and the desire to avoid feeling guilty are the foundations of moral behavior.
The ego ideal rewards the child by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when the child acts according to ideal standards approved by parents.
The conscience punishes the child for behaviors disapproved by the parents by making the child feel guilty and worthless.

25. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Feeling (continued)
Empathy
Positive feelings, such as empathy—reacting to another’s feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other’s feelings—contribute to the child’s moral development.
Empathy has a cognitive component.
Global empathy, the infant’s empathic response in which clear boundaries between feelings and needs of the self and those of others have not yet been established, is not consistently observed.

26. Domains of Moral Development
Damon’s Description of Developmental Changes in Empathy
Refer to Figure 14.5

27. Domains of Moral Development
Moral Feeling (continued)
The Contemporary Perspective on Emotion in Moral Development
Many child developmentalists believe that both positive feelings (e.g., empathy, sympathy, admiration, and self-esteem) and negative feelings (e.g., anger, outrage, shame, and guilt) contribute to children’s moral development.
Moral emotions are interwoven with the cognitive and social aspects of children’s development.

28. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1
Discuss theory and research on moral thought, behavior, and feeling.
Review
What is moral development?
What are Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s theories of moral development? How can Kohlberg’s theory be evaluated? What is social conventional reasoning?
What processes are involved in moral behavior? What is the social cognitive theory of moral development?
How are moral feelings related to moral development?

29. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1
What do you think about the following circumstances?
A man who had been sentenced to serve 10 years for selling a small amount of marijuana walked away from a prison camp after serving only 6 months of his sentence. Twenty-five years later he was caught. He is now in his 50s and is a model citizen. Should he be sent back to prison? Why or why not? At which Kohlberg stage should your response be placed? (continue → → →

30. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1
Reflect (continued)
A young woman who had been in a tragic accident is “brain dead” and has been kept on life support systems for 4 years without ever regaining consciousness. Should the life support systems be removed? Explain your response. At which Kohlberg stage should your response be placed?

31. Contexts of Moral Development
Parenting
Parental Discipline (Discipline Techniques)
Love withdrawal
Parents withhold attention or love from the child. The arousal generated may result in the child not paying attention.

32. Contexts of Moral Development
Parenting: Parental Discipline (continued)
Power assertion
Parents attempt to gain control over the child or the child’s resources. Parents act as weak models of self-control who cannot control their feelings.
Induction
Parents use reason and explanation of the consequences for others of the child’s actions. The moderate level of arousal allows children to pay attention to parents’ cognitive rationale.

33. Contexts of Moral Development
Parenting: Parental Discipline (continued)
Parenting Recommendations: Moral children tend to have parents who:
Are warm and supportive, not punitive
Use inductive discipline
Provide opportunities for learning about others’ perspectives and feelings
Involve children in family decision making and in the process of thinking about moral discussion

34. Contexts of Moral Development
Parenting: Parental Discipline (continued)
Parenting Recommendations (continued):
Model moral behaviors and thinking
Provide information about what behaviors are expected and why
Foster an internal rather than an external sense of morality

35. Contexts of Moral Development
Schools
Hidden curriculum
The moral atmosphere that is part of every school; it is conveyed by the moral atmosphere created by school and classroom rules, the moral orientation of teachers and school administrators, and text materials.
Character Education
A direct approach that involves teaching students “moral literacy” to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior.

36. Contexts of Moral Development
Schools (continued)
Cognitive Moral Education
A concept based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops.
Values Clarification
Helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for.

37. Contexts of Moral Development
Schools (continued)
Service Learning
A form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community. It benefits students and community:
Improved grades, motivation and goal setting
Improved self-esteem and sense of being able to make a difference
Decreased alienation
Increased reflection on society’s political organization and moral order

38. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2
Explain how parents and schools influence moral development.
Review
How is parental discipline related to moral development? What are some effective parenting strategies for advancing children’s moral development?
What is the hidden curriculum? What are some contemporary approaches to moral education?

39. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2
What type of discipline did your parents use with you? What effect do you think this has had on your moral development?

40. Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Prosocial Behavior
Prosocial Behavior: behavior that is intended to benefit other people.
Altruism and Reciprocity
Altruism, an unselfish interest in helping another person; an important aspect of prosocial behavior.
Reciprocity, a societal norm involving the obligation to return a favor with a favor.
Ideas that children form in early childhood set the stage for giant strides that children make in the years that follow.

41. Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Prosocial Behavior (continued)
Sharing and Fairness
During the first 3 years of life children imitate sharing behavior or do it for the fun of social play.
About 4 years of age: empathic awareness and adult encouragement produces a sense of obligation.
By elementary school age children express more complicated notions of fairness based on equality, merits, benevolence, and compromise.
Adult authority has little to do with children sharing.

42. Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Prosocial Behavior (continued)
Sharing and Fairness (continued)
Adolescents engage in prosocial behavior more than children.
Girls engage in prosocial behavior more than boys.

43. Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Conduct Disorder
Age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, society’s norms, and the personal or property rights of others.
Five percent of children show serious conduct problems, also called an externalizing or undercontrolled pattern of behavior.
Possible causes are genetic inheritance of a difficult temperament, ineffective parenting, and living in a neighborhood where violence is the norm.

44. Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Antisocial Behavior (continued)
Juvenile Delinquency
A broad range of behaviors ranging from socially unacceptable behavior such as acting out in school to criminal acts such as burglary.
Index offenses: Criminal acts, committed by juveniles or adults, such acts as robbery, aggravated assault, rape, and homicide.
Status offenses: Less serious acts performed by youth under a specified age, such as running away, truancy, underage drinking, sexual promiscuity, and uncontrollability.

45. Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Antisocial Behavior: Juvenile Delinquency (continued)
Antecedents of Delinquency: Three pathways to delinquency are:
Authority conflict—stubbornness prior to age 12, then defiance and avoidance of authority.
Covert—minor covert acts (e.g., lying) followed by property damage and moderately serious delinquency, then serious delinquency.
Overt—minor aggression followed by fighting and violence.

46. Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Antisocial Behavior: Juvenile Delinquency (continued)
Antecedents of Delinquency (continued)
Erikson: negative identity
Characteristics of lower-SES culture
Inadequate family support systems
Peer relations

47. Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Antisocial Behavior: Juvenile Delinquency (continued)
Preventing Delinquency
Fast Track: At-risk children and their families receive support and training in parenting, problem-solving and coping skills, peer relations, classroom atmosphere and curriculum, academic achievement, and home-school relations.

48. Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Violence and Youth
These factors often are present in at-risk youths and seem to propel them toward violent acts (Walker, 1998):
Early involvement with drugs and alcohol
Easy access to weapons, especially handguns
Association with antisocial, deviant peer groups
Pervasive exposure to violence in the media

49. Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Reducing Youth Violence
Recommit to raising children safely and effectively
Make prevention a reality
Give more support to school
Forge effective partnerships among families, schools, social service systems, churches, and other agencies
Garbarino (1999) concludes that youth who are killers lack a spiritual center.

50. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3
Describe the development of prosocial and antisocial behavior.
Review
How is altruism defined? How does prosocial behavior develop?
What is conduct disorder? What are the key factors in the development of juvenile delinquency and youth violence?

51. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3
As the head of a major government agency responsible for reducing delinquency in the United States, what programs would you try to implement?

52. Summary
Moral development involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding right and wrong.
Piaget distinguished between heteronomous morality in younger children and autonomous morality in older children.
Kohlberg developed a provocative theory of moral reasoning that develops through three levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. His critics noted that moral reasoning does not adequately predict moral behavior.

53. Summary
Behaviorists argue that children’s moral behavior is determined by the processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation.
Cognitions can play a role in resistance to temptation and in self-control.
Social cognitive theory emphasizes a distinction between moral competence and moral performance.

54. Summary
In Freud’s theory, the superego—the moral branch of personality—consists of the ego ideal and the conscience, and guilt is the foundation of moral behavior.
Empathy is a positive feeling that influences children to act in accord with moral standards.
Secure attachment provides the basis for parents to influence a child’s moral development in positive ways.

55. Summary
Parental discipline can involve love withdrawal, power assertion, or induction; induction is most likely to be linked with positive moral development, at least in middle-SES children.
Parents contribute to children’s moral development by providing opportunities for perspective taking and by modeling moral reasoning and behavior.
Originally proposed by John Dewey, the hidden curriculum refers to the moral atmosphere of a school.
Contemporary approaches include character education, cognitive moral education, values clarification, and service learning.

56. Summary
Altruism, an unselfish interest in helping another person, and reciprocity often motivate prosocial behavior such as sharing.
Damon described a sequence by which children develop their understanding of fairness.
Peers play a key role in development of fairness and sharing.
Adolescents engage in prosocial behavior more than children, and girls engage in prosocial behavior more than boys.

57. Summary
Conduct disorder involves age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, society’s norms, and the personal or property rights of others.
Juvenile delinquency includes a broad range of behaviors, including index offenses and status offenses.
Pathways to delinquency include conflict with authority, covert acts followed by more serious acts, and minor aggression following by fighting and violence.
Risk factors for delinquency are living in an urban, high-crime area, low parental monitoring, ineffective discipline, having an older sibling who is a delinquent, and associating with peers who are delinquents.

58. Summary
Early involvement with drugs and violence, easy access to weapons, associations with antisocial peer groups, and pervasive exposure to violent content in the media are associated with youth violence.
Recommendations for reducing youth violence include effective parenting, prevention, support for schools, and forging effective partnerships among families, schools, and communities.