Download presentation
Presentation is loading. Please wait.
Published byDuane Wilcox Modified over 8 years ago
1
Chris Jarvis 1 Leadership There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things. Machiavelli 1513
2
Chris Jarvis 2 Leadership ‘romance’ of leadership debated in organisational theory 'Any evidence for a systematic relationship between leadership styles & organisational performance?’ Subtexts (p87) A means of generating ‘stories’ about how kinds of power & influence can be exerted role of leadership in organisations related to control over meanings & interpretations of important groups its effectiveness is as a political tool Meindl et al 1985, cited in Jaffee, 2001
3
Chris Jarvis 3 A source of ‘political control and influence’ An more negative argument within organisational sociological tradition how leadership can influence how a situation is defined challenges managerial psychology views i.e leadership as an element of group and organisational functioning ( ‘managerialist legitimation’?)
4
Chris Jarvis 4 Leadership: Conceptual and practical dilemmas best understood in ‘high profile’, public figure sense we don’t like the bad ones (Hitler, Maxwell) often associated with male attributes, which may limit its definitions and thus what happens in reality may create problems for women put into leadership roles we feel its absence (leaderless, directionless)
5
Chris Jarvis 5 Psychological view of ‘what is a leader’ - Kelly, 1991 We may nominate leaders’ differently, depending upon understanding of what the situation demands (originality; defence of group; devotion to duty, etc.) and the role we expect to be played Leader one who performs a variety of jobs popularly recognised as "leadership" jobs (socially constructed) needs to understand his/her role in group social processes Dynamic, socio-psychological interplay between followers & leadership
6
Chris Jarvis 6 Authority and Leadership Max Weber effective exercise of authority requires the authority figure to possess legitimacy, thru. charisma, reputation, lineage or exceptional credentials. Katz & Kahn (1966) occupying a formal position of authority is not enough – must possess qualities to motivate & energise others. Henry Mintzberg (1973) All managers adopt a leader role as one of their roles - to integrate individual goals/needs & organisational goals/needs.
7
Chris Jarvis 7 Four approaches to leadership Trait theories Brynman 1996 reviewed literature to elicit essential e.g. physique, height, intelligence, sociability, assertiveness - no commonality. Leadership functions and styles Tannenbaum et al 1961, Likert 1961; Adair, 1965 e.g. task leaders vs. social leaders; participative or exploitative Contingency or situational leadership concerned with relationships between traits/styles & the situation or context (Feidler 1967; Hersey, Blanchard & Johnson, 1998) "New Leadership"..... Transformational create organisational culture that motivates & stimulates continuous learning, quality & self initiative - Burns 1975 and Bass 1985
8
Chris Jarvis 8 Bennis (1989) Managers (transactional) administer, copy, maintain focus on systems & structure rely on control short-range view - bottom line ask how & when accept the status quo classic good soldier do things right Leaders (transformational) innovation & originality develop focus on people & inspire trust long-range view - the horizon ask what & why challenge the status quo are their own person do the right things 'the liberation of talent rather than restraint by rule’ Leaders aim at 'winning hearts and minds'. Mere managers aim at optimising the use of 'resources'. (Peters & Austin, 1985).
9
Chris Jarvis 9 Maintaining or losing leadership Followers have expectations task competence (Fincham & Rhodes 1999) socio-emotional competence especially re-group Gap may exist between actual & perceived competence – influences willingness of followers to comply - Price & Garland, 1981 Idiosyncratic credit – permission to deviate from group norms - maintaining credit is crucial to surviving in leadership position Hollander, 1958 Common-sense + research link between mgr-leader behaviour & subordinate performance belief that business success has much to do with 'leadership'.
10
Chris Jarvis 10 Classical management functions Fayol plan, organise, direct, control resources to achieve objectives. Generate & follow policies, rules & procedures (admin. > mgt?) seek order & control. handle & direct resources: money, materials, equip't, space, facilities, information & technology use of time people Have 'subordinates' and communicate enable others to understand information, instructions or ideas Telling people what to do & how to do it > vision & giving a sense of direction?
11
Chris Jarvis 11 Management development & leadership .Can leadership skills really be developed? Drake's Drum? "The Playing Fields of Eton" team games e.g. rugby, hockey? simulated field experience (outward bound)? assessment centre (workshop selection & devel)? coaching & mentoring going on a leadership course? meditation? reading a book, watching TV?
12
Chris Jarvis 12 Academic & practitioner recipes a mix of traditional & behavioural science approaches few studies offer much to the practical manager (Adair) academic doubts. Textbooks tend to report 'theories' few query the validity of each approach the prescriptions/recommendations an industry selling Elixirs, recipes, 'leadership development' packages: interpersonal skills, motivating, listening, participative problem solving, assertiveness & transforming skills
13
Chris Jarvis 13 Unitary (vs. pluralistic) frame of reference One set of values, beliefs, commitments Shared understanding & commitment to objectives One source of leadership Team members - All pulling in the same direction Potential for harmony is assumed if leader communicates well Disagreements the result of misunderstanding Dissidents & "rabble" hypothesis Alan Fox – Research Paper to Donovan Commission 1968
14
Chris Jarvis 14 How do different 'styles' affect an organisation? wide ranging & open to question difficult to research - what are the variables? difficult to separate fact from fiction attribute cause & effect in different contexts & organisational settings over time ambiguity of measures of organisational performance gap between perception of practitioners & behavioural scientists
15
Chris Jarvis 15 Leadership traits approach Bird 1940, Brynman 1996 identified traits from 'the literature'. Few common to all studies everyday wisdom on common traits many descriptors & many heroes and villains - difficult to agree on one trait list when leaders behave towards followers in different ways, how much is cause, how much is effect? do some 'qualities' indicate potential differentiating the 'effective from the ineffective'? but non-leaders often possess the same traits as leaders Conclusion? Consider followers & situation that L. occurs in.
16
Chris Jarvis 16 Style approaches Mayo & Hawthorne experiments ( Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939) 'permissive', sensitive leadership behaviour more output Relay Assembly room - increased output influenced by 'permissive' management of researchers Bank Wiring room - links management style, employee attitudes and behaviour Kurt Lewin (1939) - adult leaders in boys' hobby club autocratic, laissez faire, democratic leader styles & the behaviour/performance of youth groups language & model linking "styles" subordinate performance Democratic style reflects dominant social values Impetus for further study - Michigan & Ohio State
17
Chris Jarvis 17 Ohio State studies (two factor theories) two (independent) L - dimensions initiating structure (task centred) consideration (interpersonal relationships) "measure" perception & style preferences in various settings inventories & development prescriptions. Effectiveness reflects task completion member satisfaction Flieshman 1953 Stogdill (1948, 1956) Supervisors High task - productive but high turnover, lower morale High consideration - high morale, low productivity Over-generalised conclusions Ideal L = high on initiation + consideration. Participative styles preferred Supervisors High task - productive but high turnover, lower morale High consideration - high morale, low productivity Over-generalised conclusions Ideal L = high on initiation + consideration. Participative styles preferred
18
Chris Jarvis 18 Critique of Ohio Studies output measures can often be favourably affected in the short term by authoritarian leadership. The problems of social research Hawthorne effect Abstracted empiricism likelihood that change in performance stems from more than one variable
19
Chris Jarvis 19 Michigan Studies programmes for changing style & org. culture 'proprietary' approaches to assessment & training (treatment) Blake - Moulton Managerial Grid (1968) Extended with contingency focus Tannenbaum (1958) Reddin (1970) Hersey & Blanchard (1977) 1.99.9. the ideal one-best style 1.19.1. Concern for production High Low Concern for people High Low 5.5. Managerial Grid
20
Chris Jarvis 20 Critique of style theories Universality of the style? weak evidence for usefulness of 'style' theories Style changes often assoc. with changes in org. structure + other mgt competencies. Fiedler (1967) - Are participative, considerate styles really better than trad. authoritarian/directive? Ineffective L-training - weak transfer of behaviour change from directive to participative
21
Chris Jarvis 21 Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum TellsSellsConsults JoinsAbdicates Suggests Delegates Boss-centredFollower-centred decision making & action freedom for followers use of authority by leader Position on continuum based on situational factors: value system, wants, confidence, willingness.
22
Chris Jarvis 22 Adair: Action-centred leadership Task functions Group maintenance Individual needs Simple model – useful for junior mgt training functional & situational emphasis on task situation + socio- emotional needs Aware of group processes, people in group, nuances of behaviour, interpersonal skills
23
Chris Jarvis 23 Critique of Group Dynamics approach If leadership behaviour is situationally & group related what happens when the situation or group changes? Does the organisation function sub-optimally? ignores wider organisational demands on leader & group. Yet we see how leaders may relate to followers & situations
24
Chris Jarvis 24 Situational L. (Hersey & Blanchard 1977 & 82) contingency approach follower maturity a critical situational variable two dimensions task style relationship style Four styles telling, selling, participating, delegating. follower maturity degree of achievement motivation willingness to take on responsibility education or experience Theoretically weak no proper rationale for the hypothesised relationships Maturity - an over-simplified factor - lacks empirical support (Yukl, 1981; Graeff, 1983; Blank et al, 1990).
25
Chris Jarvis 25 Reddin 3-D (style-contingency approach) RelatedIntegrated Separated Dedicated Developer Manager executive Bureaucrat Benevolent autocrat Missionary Compromiser Deserter Autocrat Effectiveness High Low Task HighLow Relationships Low High Too many labels
26
Chris Jarvis 26 Problems with contingency theories? what causes what - in real life? like style theories, difficult to understand why a favourable view of the leader in some groups. 'permissive' leadership: the consequence > the cause of group effectiveness social learning - leader & subordinates/followers have negotiable, interactive relationship learn to modify or influence each other's behaviour by giving or holding back desired rewards
27
Chris Jarvis 27 The search for the Grail ? exercising effective-L is more & more difficult economic shifts Pacific Rim and China etc. political change South Africa, CIS, Italy, Japan + Europe big transnational firms less goodwill & traditional deference towards leaders Many skills & techniques of today's senior execs are being superseded. Which ones? Competition & changing markets, products, technologies & expectations dictate adaptability and innovation in strategic decision making, marketing, organisation - & leadership
28
Chris Jarvis 28 Transformational leadership theory Context? late-20 th C national & global pol-econ. change Contributors: Downton (1973), Burns (1978), Bass (1985), Bennis & Nanus (1985), Tichy & Devanna (1986) Bass surveyed 70 execs "In your careers, who transformed you in Burns' terms (raised awareness, move up Maslow hierarchy …. to transcend self-interest etc). Answer: usually an organisational superior. fresh thinking? Romanticism? creates conditions for followers to want to achieve results & fulfil selves. bridges small group studies & leadership by ’movers & shakers’ who transform organisations
29
Chris Jarvis 29 From Laissez faire to Transactional Laissez-faire not really leaders at all, avoid intervention, weak follow up, passivity, potential for confusion Transactional leaders management by exception passive: set standards/objectives, wait for, react to, reluctant intervention. Status quo active: standards/objectives, monitor, correct, look for error, enforce rules/procedures. Low initiative & risk-taking constructive transactions, contingent rewards agree standards/objectives, feedback, PR rewards outcome: performance that meets expectations. simplified in One-Min. Manager (Blanchard & Johnson 1982). Airport business books
30
Chris Jarvis 30 Transactional leadership Mixed evidence - it may be desirable, even necessary. Contingent rewards underpin PRP - do they? Laissez-faire & transactional in directive, consultative, participative & delegative styles directive + Mgt by Exception 'These are the rules and this is how you've broken them'. participative + Mgt by Exception Let's work together to identify mistakes' Weaknesses Carrot/stick rewards, emphasis on plans, targets, systems, controls management > leadership fails to develop, motivate, bring to full potential (Bass)
31
Chris Jarvis 31 The transformational leader (Bass’s four 'I's) promotes follower desire for achievement & self-development. teams, esprit de corps, autonomy, synergy, belief, value Four 'I's. lndividualised consideration (IC) Intellectual stimulation (IS) Inspirational motivation (IM) ldealised influence (charisma) (II)
32
Chris Jarvis 32 Individualised consideration & Intellectual stimulation IC identifying individuals' needs & abilities, opps. to learn, delegating, coaching & giving developmental feedback. Spend time with individuals e.g. mentoring. IS question status quo, encourage imagination, creativity, logical thinking & intuition. unorthodoxy in character, symbolise innovation. compare 1960s UK motorcycles & Swiss watch market to Yamaha and Seiko
33
Chris Jarvis 33 Inspirational motivation & ldealised influence IM Clear vision, problems as opportunities, language & symbols I had a dream …... Ask not what America can do for you. Ask what you can do.. Go the extra mile. Iacocca at Chrysler. II Confident in communicating a virtuous vision The buck stops here'. Purpose, persistence, trust, accomplish > failure. Respected for personal ability Leadership.. the priceless gift you earn from those who work for you. I have to earn the right to that gift, and continuously re-earn (it). John Harvey-Jones (ICI) Gandhi, Luther King, Thatcher, Blair Hitler, Jim Jones
34
Chris Jarvis 34 Bass's model IS IC II IM Contingent Rewards MbEx-A MbEx-P LFaire effective passive active ineffective Learn TL!! Avolio-Bass training package Sales pitch - encouraging TL will project confidence, commitment & competence attract quality staff to mission & challenge develop people fully to respond better to competition & change
35
Chris Jarvis 35 Is transformational leadership cross-cultural? ‘exporting participative management or Theory Y from the USA to authoritarian cultures is like 'preaching Jeffersonian democracy to managers who believe in the divine right of kings'. Haire, Ghiselli and Porter 1966 Leadership - a universal phenomenon? context & culture influences Bass presents evidence from studies in Italy, Sweden, Canada, New Zealand, India, Japan & Singapore suggests that the model needs only fine-tuning across cultures ??
36
Chris Jarvis 36 Motivated in spite of leader? Do we really need 'em? 1970s dissatisfaction with leadership theory & research in explaining effect on motivation & performance 'Substitutes' theory of leadership (Kerr & Jermier 1978) Are there substitutes making L-behaviour unnecessary e.g. 'Professional', competent people do not need 'leadership' to perform well & to be motivated. Depends on the individuals, the work, the organisation & its structure, feedback, intrinsic job satisfaction, group cohesion, weak authority or remoteness of the leader
37
Chris Jarvis 37 Exam Question Review alternative leadership theories and analyse their value in terms of (a) guiding decisions in selecting managers to run modern organisations (b) giving pointers to individuals in developing skills and abilities that, in a range of situations, may further their career aspirations.
Similar presentations
© 2024 SlidePlayer.com Inc.
All rights reserved.