1. Cognitive information processing

3. Cognitive information processing studies the internal mental processes involved in the capture and manipulation of information, the use of information to solve problems, and the processes and structures involved in these actions.

4. Development of CIP Research on memory Development of networking concepts Development of computers Development of information theory By the 1960s, a significant number of researchers were studying cognitive phenomena By the 1970s and early 80s the cognitive revolution had changed psychology as a discipline

5. Issues How is ‘information’ in the environment scanned? What leads to further processing? How is information included in memory? How is information recalled from memory? How is information used in later thinking/action?

6. Some general rules Environmental input is massive and continual Cognitive capacity is limited Much cognitive functioning can be automated Satisficing rules are applied to deal with the flow of information and to generate effective actions and knowledge – Selectivity

7. Some general rules A form of control is necessary to make decisions on what to attend to, how to process important information, what decision rules to apply in Working Memory, etc. Control of both automatic and ‘willful’ types – Automatic control resides in “lower” brain – Control functions the individual can ‘decide’ to use reside in the ‘more advanced’ parts of the brain

8. General principles Control mechanism – Allocates processing capacity – Prioritizes activities – Coordinates actions

10. To begin Sense organs are excited by environmental stimuli The stimuli are ‘transduced’ into signals (electrical) that can be carried in the neural pathways

11. Sensory activation – Environmental cues generate changes within specialized organs Eyes Ears Skin Tongue – Only a portion of environmental phenomena generate sensual changes Infrared light X-rays

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13. Limitations There are very significant limits as to what stimuli can be perceived via human sense organs – Visible spectrum of light – Audible sounds – Haptic limitations

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16. Transduction of sensual reaction Sensory organs create patterns of electrical impulses as a response to environmental stimuli – (Transduction) Qualitatively different patterns are produced for visual, sound, touch (haptic), and language (semantic) memory systems

18. Buffering and filtering Sensual buffers are thought to exist that retain the electrical impulses for a short period of time The ‘most important’ content is passed along while the ‘less important’ content is filtered out Cannot handle the vast amount of information that senses generate Filtering is based on ‘pattern recognition’

22. Attention Recognition of content of various types leads to the allocation of processing capacity—the physical component of attention – Limited resource – Influenced by a number of factors, some content- based, some ‘feature’ based – Much attention is allocated “automatically” and not under the control of the individual

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24. Determinants of attention Most content is disposed of quickly— recognized as routine and then ignored – “Habituation” of repetitive tasks, experiences leads to ‘monitoring’ – Attention allocated to divergence from the norm, expectations

25. Determinants of attention Hard-wired to attend to cues that had survival value (those that didn’t left the gene pool) “Orienting response” due to – Movement – Loud noises – Bright colors/contrasts

26. Formal features All media content has certain ‘formal features’ that impact the experience the audience has when watching, reading, listening to the content – Formal features are not specific to a story line, genre, etc. Brightness, pacing, color intensity, cuts, camera angles, and so on

27. Overuse of volume change, sudden movement, etc. can impede encoding Processing capacity tied up interpreting formal features – overloading can lead to confusion, inadequate time for building memory trace or schematization What topics did you just see? What animals? Overuse may be annoying so that the audience member may quit attending or switch channel, etc.

28. Learned automaticity Some kinds of content are “overlearned’’ to the point where the viewer processes them without thinking about it—so well-known that they do not command precious processing capacity – Driving well-known routes – Listening to favorite CDs – Walking across campus – Greetings for good friends – Your name—“Cocktail party phenomenon”

29. Personal relevance/Involvement Impact on you or those you care about – News Relationship to your values/morals – Note: the way something is presented may determine whether it is interpreted as relevant or not

30. Determinants of attention Internally-generated needs draw attention to content perceived to relate to those needs – Hunger – Pain – Fear – Sexual desire

31. Controlled attention “Intentional” focus on particular content – Recognized as interesting or important Emotionally compelling (relatively automatic) Cognitively challenging (relatively intentional) Personally impactful/“Involving” – Based on existing schema developed over time by the audience member

32. Individual interest Experience with place/time depicted Mystery stories set in your home town – Fargo Feelings toward actors, spokespeople, etc. Trust Parasocial interaction Experience with various types of content Background makes it possible to limit attention necessary to process the content Genre knowledge and preference Taste development News habit

33. Working and Short-Term Memory For further processing to occur, the information must be held in memory long enough to compare the information with existing knowledge Relationship between STM and WM is controversial

35. Capacity of STM Often considered “7+/-2 chunks” of information More recent research has argued that we have greater capacity – Ability to monitor many environmental cues at one time, shift attentional resources as needed

36. Working memory The active portion of memory (including consciousness) where processes reject, evaluate, interpret information – Where “consciousness” lies Thought to hold info for 15-30 seconds unless rehearsal occurs – Decay/displacement Repetitive v. elaborative rehearsal

37. Rehearsal/Encoding Decisions must be made as to what information within WM will receive the processing effort (attention) necessary to encode it for storage The chosen portion is prepared for transfer to LTM (“encoding”) When transferred, a “memory trace” must be constructed in order to find it again

38. Distraction If memory traces are not laid down prior to shift in cognitive focus, the content being evaluated is probably lost

39. Working memory Must activate stored material in LTM to assign meaning to the new patterns of electrical impulses – What does “economic impact” (a pattern of impulses representing a set of characters on a page) mean?

46. Long-Term Memory A small portion of ‘information’ from working memory is prepared for transfer to long-term (permanent) storage – To do so, it is integrated into structures of meaning (schema) held within long-term memory – The integration gives ‘meaning’ to the new information while reconfiguring the schema that are activated to interpret the new info Reconfiguration of schema is usually minor

47. The portion of schema activated depends on attention allocation, nature of new information

48. Retrieval from LTM Information retrieved from LTM is limited – Would quickly reach overload if we tried to access all potentially relevant info – Would take far too long—can’t spend long periods of time on anything but the most crucial new info/decision-making Retrieval based on perceived shared or similar meaning/concepts – Memories in LTM organized hierarchically? Schematically? Etc.

49. Influences on retrieval Primacy – Earliest concepts draw info from particular parts of schema/schemas Recency – Recently activated concepts more likely to be retrieved Commonly used concepts – Concepts/schemas heavily used tend to be activated to deal with new concepts

50. Influences on retrieval Concepts are retrieved according to the set of relationships they have with other concepts – Spreading activation The structure of relationships varies by individual – Culture influences structure of relations/ topics/concepts held

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55. Into LTM A memory trace to the new information is laid down along with the concepts – More powerful impact of info leads to stronger trace – Trace will fade with time or else be eclipsed by newer traces

56. Forms of LTM Episodic LTM – Sounds – Sights Semantic LTM – Concepts (generalization)

57. Construction of memory Belief that more specific concepts are ‘filed’ under more general ones – Efficient

58. Schema Structure of Semantic LTM Concepts and the network of associations among them [Nodes and links]

59. Out of LTM Information in WM cues a search for similar into held in LTM – Search is partly under conscious control and part automatic That info may be excited and the new info is given meaning through its connection to existing knowledge

60. When a decision is needed, information search and retrieval generates inputs into decision rules Action or decision leads to new environmental input that will likely be stored with the original information

61. Behavior Behavior is mostly controlled by the outcome of info processing in working memory – Actions taken to meet needs/drives/motivations – Responses to environmental demands

62. Behavior adjustment The environmental change observed after behavioral action acts as new information that goes through the info processing system and is encoded into our schema relating to the topic – Perceived success, failure becomes a guide to new action brought on by perceived needs, etc. – Self-regulating model