1. Attention as a Limited Capacity Resource
Chapter 9
Attention as a
Limited Capacity Resource
Concept: Preparation for and performance of motor skills are influenced by our limited capacity to select and attend to information

2. Defining the Term “Attention” and Multiple Task Performance
Attention refers to characteristics associated with
Consciousness
Awareness
Cognitive effort
As they relate to the performance of skills, with particular reference to the limitations associated with those characteristics on the
Simultaneous performance of multiple skills
Detection of relevant information in the performance environment

3. Attention and Multiple Task Performance
When we simultaneously perform multiple tasks (e.g. driving a car, listening to a CD, and talking with a passenger)
we sometimes experience no difficulties in performing all the tasks, but
we sometimes cannot do all the tasks as we would like
WHY?
Answer relates to “attention” as a performance limiting factor

4. Attention Theories Filter Theories (a.k.a. bottleneck theories)
Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because of limitation due to serial processing of multiple stimuli [see Fig. 9-1]
Alternative Theories (Resource capacity theories)
Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because of limitation due to availability of resources needed to carry out tasks
i.e. resource capacity limits
Simultaneous performance of multiple tasks can occur as long as the resource capacity limits not exceeded

5. Attention Theories, cont’d
Central Resource Capacity Theories
Propose one central (i.e., CNS) source of attention resources for which all activities requiring attention compete
Task A
Driving car
Task B
Talking with
passenger
Flexible
attention capacity
Kahneman’s Attention Theory: An Example of a Central Resource Capacity Theory
Equates attention with “cognitive effort”
Proposed flexible attention capacity limits
See Figure 9.3

6. Kahneman’s Attention Theory, cont’d
Miscellaneous
determinants
Arousal level: The factor that influences the amount of attention capacity for a specific performance situation
Amount of attention resources available (i.e. capacity) varies in relation to a person’s arousal level
Maximum amount available only when arousal level is optimal for the situation
Relate to inverted-U function of arousal – performance relationship
Evaluation of attention requirements of multiple tasks to be performed
Critical factor for determining whether sufficient attention resources available – given capacity limits set by arousal level
Misc.
manifestations
of arousal
Arousal
Available
capacity
Enduring
dispositions
Allocation policy
Momentary
intentions
Evaluation of
demands on
capacity
Possible activities
Responses

7. Kahneman’s Attention Theory, cont’d
Miscellaneous
determinants
3 “rules” people use to allocate available attention resources when performing multiple tasks
Ensure completion of at least one task
Enduring dispositions: Involuntary attention allocation, e.g.,
Novel for the situation
Meaningfulness of the event (e.g., “cocktail party phenomenon”)
Momentary intentions
Allocate attention according to instructions
Misc.
manifestations
of arousal
Arousal
Available
capacity
Enduring
dispositions
Allocation policy
Momentary
intentions
Evaluation of
demands on
capacity
Possible activities
Responses

8. Multiple Resource Theories
Alternative to theories proposing one central resource
Propose that we have several sources for attention
Each source has a limited capacity of resources
The multiple sources based on specific information processing component
Sensory input (e.g. visual, proprioceptive)
Response output (e.g. verbal, motor)
Type of memory code (e.g. spatial, verbal)
Performance of simultaneous multiple tasks depends on competition for attention resources within and between the multiple sources

9. Procedures for Assessing Attention Demands
Dual-task procedure determine the attention demands and characteristics of the simultaneous performance of two different tasks
Primary task is the task of interest
Secondary task performance is the basis to make inferences about the attention demands of the primary task

10. Focusing Attention Attentional focus: Attention switching
The marshalling of attention resources to direct them to specific characteristics of our performance or performance environment
Width of focus
Focus can be broad or narrow
Direction of focus
Focus can be external or internal
Attention switching
The changing of attention focus characteristics in a situation that allows successful performance

11. Focusing Attention on Movements vs. Movement Effects
Concerns direction of attentional focus – Does internal or external direction matter?
Action effect hypothesis (Prinz, 1997)
Proposed benefit of external focus during performance
Focus attention on “intended outcome” of movements rather than on movements themselves

12. Attention and Automaticity
Automaticity = Performance of a skill (or parts of a skill) without requiring attention resources
Automaticity of task performance related to amount of practice
Question that remains for researchers to answer: How automated does the performance of complex skills become?

13. Visual Selective Attention
The study of attention as it relates to the use of vision in the selection of environmental information in the preparation and/or performance of an action
Visual search is the process of directing visual attention to locate relevant information (i.e., cues) in the environment

14. Visual Selective Attention, cont’d
Eye-movement recordings are commonly used to investigate visual selective attention
Important question is: What is the relationship between eye movements and visual selective attention; does what a person is “looking at” (point of gaze) indicate where visual selective attention is directed?
It is possible to direct attention to an environmental feature without directly looking at it
Remember, eye-movement recordings identify focal vision not peripheral vision
It is not possible to make an eye movement without also making a shift in attention

15. How We Select Visual Cues?
Visual search and intended actions
An active search for “regulatory” conditions based on action goal
e.g. Research by Bekkering & Neggers (2002) showed different visual search patterns for the action goals pointing to an object and grasping the object
Feature integration theory:
Initially search according to specific features (e.g., color, shape)
Direct “attentional spotlight” on environment (wide or narrow focus)
features of interest “pop out”

16. Visual Search and Action Preparation
Visual search picks up cues that influence 3 aspects of action preparation
Action selection
Constraining of the selected action
Timing of action initiation
Note how these three preparation processes influenced by visual search in
Open motor skills
Closed motor skills
See examples in the textbook

17. Visual Search and Action Preparation
Visual search picks up cues that influence 3 aspects of action preparation
Action selection
Constraining of the selected action
Timing of action initiation
Note how these three preparation processes influenced by visual search in
Open motor skills
Closed motor skills
See examples in the textbook

18. Training Visual Search Strategies
Search strategies can be learned, however, they must be specific to an activity.
There is little evidence of benefit derived from generalized visual training programs
It ignores the general finding that experts recognize specific patterns more readily than do novices
Visual search success is experience based
Often results from implicit learning of relevant visual cues