1. OCR Examinations AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Module 2562 : Section B
part 1
Acquiring, Performing and Teaching Movement Skills

2. INDEX Index 3 - CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
4 - DEFINITIONS OF SKILL - CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
5 - DEFINITIONS OF SKILL
THE GUTHRIE KNAPP DEFINITION OF SKILL
6 - SKILL KEYWORDS
8 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM
9 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL IFLUENCE) CONTINUUM
10 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM
11 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM
12 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM
13 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM
14 - CHARACTERISTICS OF ABILITY
PSYCHOMOTOR / PERCEPTUAL
15 - ABILITY - GROSS MOTOR / GENERAL / SPECIFIC / GROUPS
16 - SKILL DEVELOPMENT
COGNITIVE / ASSOCIATIVE / AUTONOMOUS
17 - SKILL, ABILITY AND YOUR PPP
18 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - BASIC MODEL
19 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - SCHMIDT’s MODEL
20 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL
21 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL
22 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING’S MODEL
23 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING`S MODEL
24 - ATTENTION
25 - LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES
SINGLE CHANNEL THEORY
26 - LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES
MULTIPLE CHANNEL THEORY
27 - PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION
28 - MEMORY SYSTEMS
29 - BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS
30 - BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS
31 - IMPROVING RETENTION
32 - IMPROVING INFORMATION RETENTION
33 - REACTION TIME - MOVEMENT / RESPONSE TIME
34 - REACTION TIME - SIMPLE / CHOICE REACTION TIME
35 - PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD
36 - FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME
37 - THE ROLE OF ANTICIPATION
38 - IMPROVING RESPONSE TIMES
CUES / DECISION MAKING / ATTENTIONAL FOCUS
39 - FEEDBACK - IMPORTANCE
40 - FEEDBACK - INTRINSIC
41 - FEEDBACK
EXTRINSIC / KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE / RESULTS
42 - FUNCTIONS OF EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK DEPENDENCY
43 - FEEDBACK
CONCURRENT / TERMINAL / POSITIVE / NEGATIVE
44 - INFORMATION PROCESSING AND YOUR PPP
45 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - SUBROUTINES
46 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - DISCUS THROW
47 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - TENNIS SERVE
48 - MOTOR CONTROL - OPEN LOOP CONTROL
49 - MOTOR CONTROL - CLOSED LOOP CONTROL
50 - SCHEMA (SCHMIDT’s THEORY)
51 - SCHEMA - RECALL SCHEMA
52 - SCHEMA - RECOGNITION SCHEMA

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
The Characteristics of Skilful Performance
CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL

4. DEFINITIONS OF SKILL USES OF THE WORD SKILL CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
The Characteristics of Skilful Performance
DEFINITIONS OF SKILL
USES OF THE WORD SKILL
technique
example : feint or dodge
sport
example : classifications
quality
example : skilful performance
CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
consistent
can be repeated correctly
learned
skill has been practised until retained in long term memory
predetermined
the performer has a goal
aesthetic
the movement is pleasing and looks good
CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
efficient
no waste of energy
the movement seems effortless
coordinated
flowing and fluid movement
controlled
the performer has control over the movement
good technique
the movement follows an accepted correct technical model
SKILLED PERFORMERS
can vary the outcome
can vary the timing and scope of action
can focus attention appropriately
can anticipate

5. DEFINITIONS OF SKILL THE GUTHRIE KNAPP DEFINITION OF SKILL
The Characteristics of Skilful Performance
DEFINITIONS OF SKILL
THE GUTHRIE KNAPP DEFINITION OF SKILL
the learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty often with the minimum outlay of time or energy or both
skill is learned
learning is a relatively permanent change in performance
performance is a temporary action

6. SKILL KEYWORDS BALANCE
The Characteristics of Skilful Performance
SKILL KEYWORDS
BALANCE
a psychomotor ability - maintenance of the body’s centre of mass within the base of support to allow pause, change of direction, stillness
CLASSIFICATION OF SKILL
the means by which skills which have common characteristics are grouped together
CLOSED SKILL
a skill performed in a fixed environment, example : a discus throw
CONTINUOUS SKILLS
skills with no obvious beginnings and endings
CONTINUUM OF SKILLS
a range of skill characteristics
COORDINATION
a psychomotor ability which allows efficient transmission of information through the nervous system to create required movements
DISCRETE SKILLS
skills with clear beginnings and endings, example : discus throw
EXTERNALLY-PACED SKILLS
skills where the timing and form are determined by what is happening in the environment, example : receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game

7. SKILL KEYWORDS FINE SKILL
The Characteristics of Skilful Performance
SKILL KEYWORDS
FINE SKILL
skills involving small movements of specific body parts, example : potting a ball at snooker
GROSS SKILL
involve large muscle groups and movements of the whole body, example : discus throw
LEARNING
a relatively permanent change of performance resulting from practice or experience
OPEN SKILLS
skills in which the form of the action is determined by the environment and therefore is constantly changing, example : receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game
SELF-PACED SKILLS
the performer has control over the rate at which the action takes place and also the timing of the start of the action, example : discus throw
SERIAL SKILLS
where several distinct elements are joined together to form an integrated movement, example : triple jump

8. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM
GROSS FINE
weight javelin netball cricket golf ten pin darts/
lifting throw pass stroke shot bowling snooker
GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM
gross skills use large muscle movements
associated with :
strength
endurance
power
fine skills use small delicate muscle movements
speed
accuracy
efficiency

9. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM
OPEN CLOSED
soccer soccer tennis tennis soccer shot
goal save pass stroke serve penalty putt
OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM
open skills
require perceptual monitoring (the performer perceives the information which stimulates the skill response)
occur in an unpredictable environment
the form of action is constantly being varied according to what is happening around the performer
have no clear beginning or end and are usually externally paced
closed skills
are prelearned and habitual
usually occur in the autonomous phase of learning
have no external requirements
have a clear beginning and end
occur in a predictable environment
the technical requirements of the skill conform to a specific model

10. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM
DISCRETE SERIAL CONTINUOUS
weight javelin high basketball running
lifting throw jump dribble
DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM
discrete skills
have a clear beginning and end
can be performed by themselves without linkage to other skills
the skill can be repeated but the performer starts again
serial skills
have a number of discrete skills
which are linked together into a performance consisting of several phases
continuous skills
cannot be split up into subroutines or easily distinguishable parts
but last a relatively long time
as long as the performer wishes

11. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM
EXTERNALLY-PACED SELF-PACED
yachting tennis soccer diving tennis weight
receiving serve game serve lifting
EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM
externally-paced skills
the speed and precision with which the skill is executed
are controlled by the environment / surroundings of the performer
opposing teams or individuals in a game
or the weather or wind conditions
self-paced skills
the rate of action is controlled by the performer

12. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM
SIMPLE COMPLEX
sprinting throwing snooker gymnastic gymnastic
tumble floor exercise
SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM
simple skills
are straightforward skills
with few subroutines
requiring little concentration and cognitive activity on the part of the performer
complex skills
are complicated skills
requiring a lot of attention / practice
the complexity of which can be perceived differently by different individuals
require a large number of (interlinked) subroutines, some of which may be habitual and learned
which affects the ease with which the performer performs the skill

13. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM
LOW ORGANISATION HIGH ORGANISATION
swimming cycling gymnastic move
stroke pole vault
LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM
skills with low organisation
are uncomplicated and have little organisational structure
subroutines tend to be discrete
and may be practised separately
skills with high organisation
have a complex organisational structure
subroutines are closely linked
and cannot be practised separately (the skill must be practised as a whole)
require far more attention and concentration to be performed successfully

14. CHARACTERISTICS OF ABILITY
Definitions and Characteristics of Abilities
CHARACTERISTICS OF ABILITY
ABILITY IS :
THE FOUNDATION
of the learning process
to be successful, a performer must have certain abilities
GENETICALLY DETERMINED
we are born with our abilities
abilities are innate
some people can pick up skills easily, others have difficulty
ENDURING
people usually continue to display their ability for a long time
PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY
enables a performer to process information about how and when he / she moves
PERCEPTUAL ABILITY
this is the ability to sense and interpret sensory inputs
examples from :
coordination, reaction time, agility, depth perception, arm / hand steadiness, speed, balance, manual dexterity, aiming

15. ABILITY GROSS MOTOR ABILITY
Definitions and Characteristics of Abilities
ABILITY
GROSS MOTOR ABILITY
to be able to move in a coordinated muscle movements
examples from :
extent / dynamic flexibility
explosive, static, trunk strength
gross body equilibrium / coordination
stamina
limb speed
GENERAL ABILITY
does not exist ?
SPECIFIC ABILITY
skills require different abilities specific to each skill
GROUPS OF ABILITIES
a good sportsperson may have many different groups of abilities

16. SKILL DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT / LEARNING COGNITIVE
Motor Skill Development
SKILL DEVELOPMENT
STAGES OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT / LEARNING
COGNITIVE
skill learning goals are set and learning is begun
improvement is rapid, but movements are jerky and uncoordinated
demands high attention and concentration
ASSOCIATIVE
specific motor programmes and subroutines are developed relevant to sport
consistency and coordination improve rapidly, timing and anticipation improve
gross error detection and correction is practised, detailed feedback is utilised
improvement is less rapid
AUTONOMOUS
performance almost automatic, performed easily without stress
high proficiency with habitual performance and attention demands reduced
emphasis on tactics / strategy
errors detected and corrected without help

17. SKILL, ABILITY AND YOUR PPP
Motor Skill Development
SKILL, ABILITY AND YOUR PPP
WITHIN YOUR PPP YOU SHOULD :
analyse your sport as to its skill content
place skills in relevant continua
muscular involvement
environmental influence
continuity
pacing
difficulty
organisation
identify gross motor and psychomotor abilities which may be important within the skills within your chosen activity

18. INFORMATION PROCESSING - BASIC MODEL
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - BASIC MODEL

19. INFORMATION PROCESSING - SCHMIDT’s MODEL
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - SCHMIDT’s MODEL
STIMULUS
this is the input from the environment / surroundings
STIMULUS IDENTIFICATION
refers to the reception and interpretation of sensory information
RESPONSE SELECTION
is responsible for decision making
RESPONSE PROGRAMMING
concerned with the sending of movement information via the nerves to the muscles
OUTPUT
is movement resulting from the process

20. INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL

21. INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL
DISPLAY
refers to the range of actions and things that are happening in the surrounding environment of the performer
PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM
the part of the brain which perceives the surroundings
DECISION MECHANISM
the part of the brain which makes decisions
EFFECTOR MECHANISM
the part of the brain which carries out the decisions and sends messages to the limbs and parts of the body which act out the relevant skill
INTRINSIC FEEDBACK
feedback as to what actually happens to the body via the proprioceptors which inform the brain about balance, muscle tensions, limb positions and angles
EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK
feedback via the result (response) of the actions made
the results of which feed back as part of the display

22. INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING’S MODEL
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING’S MODEL

23. INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING`S MODEL
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING`S MODEL
RECEPTOR SYSTEMS
refers to the sense organs which receive information
PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM
the part of the brain which perceives the surroundings and gives them meaning
TRANSLATORY MECHANISM
the part of the brain which makes decisions and sorts out and processes the few relevant bits of information
from the many inputs from the surroundings
EFFECTOR MECHANISM
the part of the brain which carries out the decisions and sends messages to the limbs and parts of the body via the nervous system

24. Memory
ATTENTION
ATTENTION
relates to the amount of information we can cope with
since the amount of information we can attend to is limited
we have limited attentional capacity
the performer must therefore attend to only relevant information
and disregard irrelevant information
this is called selective attention
when some parts of a performance become automatic
the information relevant to those parts does not require attention
this gives the performer spare attentional capacity
which allows the performer to attend to new elements of a skill
such as tactics or anticipating the moves of an opponent
the coach will need to help the performer to make best use of spare attentional capacity
the coach will also need to direct the attention of the performer to enable him / her to concentrate and reduce the chance of attentional switching to irrelevant information or distractions

25. LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES
Memory
LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES
SINGLE CHANNEL THEORY
this theory says that a performer can only attend to one thing at a time
so information is processed sequentially
attentional switching would occur by transferring attention from one situation to another
so although attention would be shared between situations, only one would be attended to at a time (one then two then one then two …..)
therefore this can only be done if each situation requires small attentional capacity

26. LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES
Memory
LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES
MULTIPLE CHANNEL THEORY
this theory says that so long as incoming information arrives along different channels
then the performer can attend to more than one task at a time
an advanced performer will need to attend to many different bits of information at a time
but as long as each item does not require much effort (which takes up attentional capacity) then this is possible
also most advanced players will process some information automatically which allows attentional capacity for other inputs

27. PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION
Memory
PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION
PERCEPTION
perception is stimulus identification
as information is received from the environment, the performer needs to make sense of it
to interpret it and identify the elements which are relevant and important
consists of three elements :
detection
comparison
recognition
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
the process of sorting out relevant bits of information from the many which are received
attention passes the information to the short-term memory which gives time for conscious analysis
a good performer can focus totally on an important aspect of his / her skill
which can exclude other elements which may also be desirable
sometimes a performer may desire to concentrate on several different things at once

28. Memory
MEMORY SYSTEMS

29. BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS
SENSORY INPUT
refers to the information received from the surroundings
SHORT-TERM SENSORY STORAGE
the area of the brain which receives information and holds it for a short time (less than 1 second) prior to processing
information deemed unimportant is lost and forgotten and replaced by new information
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
the process of sorting out relevant bits of information from the many which are received
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
the part of the brain which keeps information for a short period ( seconds) after it has been deemed worthy of attention
the STM can carry between 5 and 9 separate items of information
can be improved by chunking
the information can be used for problem solving
or passed on to the long term memory for permanent storage

30. BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS
LONG-TERM MEMORY
the part of the brain which retains information for long periods of time - up to the lifetime of the performer
very well learned information is stored
LTM is limitless and not forgotten
but may require a code for the information to be recalled
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
this is memory of how to do something, which serves as a blueprint to enable you to repeat a movement
SEMANTIC MEMORY
knowledge memory of facts and concepts
EPISODIC MEMORY
memory of important occasions in your past life
DECISION MAKING
the process by which desired outcomes are chosen
FEEDBACK
the process of sending information back to the performer via the results of a movement or the position of the performer’s body

31. Memory
IMPROVING RETENTION

32. IMPROVING INFORMATION RETENTION
Memory
IMPROVING INFORMATION RETENTION
KNOWING HOW
educate the performer about the details of a skill
explain what to do and how to do it
BREVITY
be brief
do not overload the short-term memory which can only hold small amounts of data
CLARITY
keep advice / instruction simple and clear (KISS - keep it simple stupid)
carefully separate similar skills to enable the performer to distinguish between them
CHUNKING
more information can be held in STM if information is lumped together / chunked
ORGANISATION
organise the process of learning to ensure the information is meaningful
ASSOCIATION
link new information with old already learnt information
PRACTICE
practice makes perfect
repetition of any information or skill will enable it to be remembered

33. REACTION TIME REACTION TIME (RT)
time between the onset of a stimulus and the start of the response
this is an inherent ability or trait
the stimulus could be :
kinaesthesia
hearing
touch
vision
pain
smell
from this list, the fastest reaction times occur to stimuli at the top of the list, the slowest to those at the bottom of the list
MOVEMENT TIME
time it takes to complete the onset of a movement
RESPONSE TIME
time it takes to process information and then to make a response
RESPONSE TIME = REACTION TIME + MOVEMENT TIME

34. REACTION TIME SIMPLE REACTION TIME
is relevant to a single stimulus and a single possible response
CHOICE REACTION TIME
several stimuli are given but only one must be selected for response
the more choices a person has, the more information needs processing, and the longer it takes to process the information
the slower the reaction time
this is Hick’s Law - see graph below

35. PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD
Reaction Time
PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD
PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD (PRP)
presentation of a second stimulus
will slow down the processing of information
causing a time lag (this is the PRP) between the relevant stimulus and an appropriate response
example : selling a dummy in Rugby
EXAMPLE
S1 (1st stimulus) would be the dummy
S2 (2nd stimulus) would be the definite move
if the dummy (S1) had been the only stimulus then the reaction would have been at time R1
in the meantime, S2 has happened, but the performer cannot begin his / her response to this until the full reaction R1 has been processed by the brain
so there is therefore a period of time (the PRP) after S2 but before the time break to R2 can begin
a person who can do a multiple dummy / shimmy (Mat Dawson / Jason Robinson) can leave opposition with no time to react and hence miss a tackle

36. FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME
age
the older we get, the slower our reaction times
gender
males have quicker reaction times than females
but reaction times reduce less with age for females
increase in stimulus intensity will improve reaction time
a louder bang will initiate the go more quickly than a less loud bang
tall people will have slower reactions than short people because of the greater distance the information has to travel from the performer’s brain to the active muscles
short sprinters tend to win 60m races
arousal levels affect reaction times which are best when the performer is alert but not over aroused
the performer must attend to the most important cues (which act as a stimulus)
factors like body language / position might give a cue which enables the performer to anticipate a stimulus
anticipation of an opponents play by identifying favourite strokes or positions, particularly if the play involves an attempted dummy or fake

37. THE ROLE OF ANTICIPATION
Reaction Time
THE ROLE OF ANTICIPATION
ANTICIPATION
the ability to predict future events from early signals or past events
reaction time can be speeded up if the performer learns to anticipate certain actions
good performers start running motor programmes before the stimulus is fully recognised
they anticipate the strength, speed and direction of a stimulus
this would enable a performer to partially eliminate the PRP (psychological refractory period)
however, opponents will also be trying to anticipate
opponents reaction times can be increased by increasing the number of choices of stimulus they have
increasing the number of fakes or dummies (Dawson / Robinson)

38. IMPROVING RESPONSE TIMES
Reaction Time
IMPROVING RESPONSE TIMES
DETECTING THE CUE
sort out the stimulus (starter’s gun) from the background (spectator noise)
DETECTING RELEVANT CUES
pick out relevant stimulus from other possible ones - choice reaction time reduced by eliminating alternative choices
DECISION MAKING
work on set pieces in open skill situations so that an ‘automatic’ complex response can be made to a simple open stimulus
CHANGE IN ATTENTIONAL FOCUS
practice switch of concentration quickly from one situation (opponents in defence) to another (field of play in attack)
CONTROLLING ANXIETY
anxiety would increase response times - reduce by calming strategies
CREATING OPTIMUM MOTIVATION
psyching up
WARM-UP
ensure that sense organs and nervous system are in optimum state to transmit information and muscles to act on it

39. Feedback
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
information which is used during and after an action or movement
THE IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK
visual feedback for the beginner helps the performer to gain insight into a performance and its quality
demonstration of faults and corrections as feedback should be correct, since the performer will attempt to imitate the demonstration
verbal feedback should be restricted during the early stages of learning since too much information can confuse the performer
during the later stages of learning, the performer should have extra attentional capacity which should enable greater detail to be communicated
asking questions about the feelings involved in a performance is a form of feedback
the importance of feedback is high to the coach (or teacher) teaching a performer skills since knowledge of performance is a way of improving skill levels

40. FEEDBACK TYPES OF FEEDBACK INTRINSIC FEEDBACK
this is sensory information
from the performer’s own sensory system
which normally occurs when individuals produce movement
intrinsic feedback received from outside the body is known as exteroceptive feedback
sight - the view of other competitors in a game
hearing - the sounds of crowd
smell - of other competitors!
intrinsic feedback from within the body is known as proprioceptive feedback
proprioception - the position and angles of limbs and tension in muscles

41. FEEDBACK TYPES OF FEEDBACK EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE
information about a performance (its quality / rhythm / aesthetics)
from a coach
from video
from the press / TV
KNOWLEGDE OF RESULTS
information about the outcome of a performance
success or failure
distance / height / time
this information can be from a number of sources
coach
video
press / TV

42. FUNCTIONS OF EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK
MOTIVATIONAL
success is motivational
failure can act as a spur to motivation
REINFORCING
behaviour that is rewarded tends to be repeated
so praise for a correct performance will act as positive reinforcement
which will influence the performer to desire to repeat the correct performance
INFORMATIONAL
feedback provides information about errors hence the performer will be able to correct errors
FEEDBACK DEPENDENCY
some performers can become dependent on feedback
example : from a coach or significant other about the quality of performance or technical competence
if this feedback is withdrawn or cannot be given then performance can deteriorate
as in a field event athlete in a major games who cannot function without feedback from a coach about his / her technique
and who therefore will fail

43. FEEDBACK TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONCURRENT FEEDBACK
occurs during a performance
has the aim of improving skills or techniques while a performer is in action
TERMINAL FEEDBACK
occurs after a performance has finished
is important because it strengthens the schema in learning
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
is feedback which gives information aimed at a constructive development of performance
positive reinforcement, praise and encouragement about good performances
the knowledge from poor performances which gives insight about errors and their possible correction
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
is information which could depress performance
negative reinforcement, negative criticism about poor performances

44. INFORMATION PROCESSING AND YOUR PPP
WITHIN YOUR PPP YOU SHOULD :
apply one information processing model to your chosen activity

45. MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES
MOTOR PROGRAMME
defined as a set of movements stored as a whole in the long-term memory
contains all the information required to make a movement :
which muscles to use
the order in which muscles are used
the phasing and degree of contraction of muscles
EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME
enables a skill to be performed
can be made up of a large number of subroutines
must be adaptable so that it can be altered when the environment / surroundings change
SUBROUTINES
component parts of an executive programme
structured in layers
some subroutines can be in turn broken down into further subroutines which form smaller parts of a skill
each subroutine is a short fixed sequence
which when fully learned can be performed automatically
without conscious control

46. MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES
STRUCTURE OF EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME FOR A DISCUS THROW

47. MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES
STRUCTURE OF EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME FOR A TENNIS SERVE

48. MOTOR CONTROL OPEN LOOP CONTROL
this applies to executive programmes whose subroutines are simple and well-learned
and are automatic (no conscious thought is necessary)
they are then completed rapidly without time for feedback
and apply to closed and self-paced skills
examples :
tennis serve
discus throw

49. MOTOR CONTROL CLOSED LOOP CONTROL this applies to ongoing movements
in which only part of the information necessary to complete a movement is sent to effector organs (neuromuscular system)
the remaining information is sent following feedback via kinaesthesis
information about balance and body position can be used to change these factors during a movement
examples :
riding a bike
performing a gymnastic move
performing a complex dive

50. SCHEMA (SCHMIDT’s THEORY)
Motor Control
SCHEMA (SCHMIDT’s THEORY)
SCHEMA THEORY
explains how sports performers can undertake so many actions with very little conscious control
the long-term memory isn’t big enough to store all the motor programmes required under the open and closed loop theories
schema theory says that generalised motor programmes exist which can be modified by taking in information as a skill is performed
the LTM therefore has to store far fewer motor programmes
since any new movement can be performed by running a schema which closely matches the needs of the new movement
the bigger the schema the more efficient the movement
large amounts of varied practice are needed to improve a schema
feedback is very important to correct and update a schema

51. SCHEMA SCHEMA a schema is the information about :
Motor Control
SCHEMA
SCHEMA
a schema is the information about :
where the performer is (knowledge of the environment)
what the performer has to do to perform successfully (response specifications)
what a movement feels like (sensory consequences)
what happens when the performer responds (response outcomes)
which is stored and used to update a motor programme when used next
RECALL SCHEMA
this is all the information needed to start a relevant movement
the knowledge of the environment (initial conditions)
playing conditions (pitch, playing surface, weather)
positions of team mates and opposition
condition of equipment (kit, bike, car)
the response specifications (the correct technical model)
speed and force required
size and shape of movement required
techniques and styles used
used for quick ballistic movements when there isn’t enough time to process feedback

52. SCHEMA RECOGNITION SCHEMA
Motor Control
SCHEMA
RECOGNITION SCHEMA
information needed to correct errors and remember correct performance
information about evaluating the response
the sensory consequences (knowledge of performance)
the feeling and look of the performance
the response outcomes (movement outcomes)
the results of performance
knowledge of results (how far / fast / many)
used when there is enough time to process feedback
or for evaluating performance