1. Chapter Five Learning

2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-2 Did You Know That… Déjà-vu may be a learned response? In an early study, a young boy learned to fear a white rat after experimenters repeatedly made loud noises by banging steel bars behind his head while the rat was present?

3. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-3 Did You Know That… (Cont’d) Phobias may be acquired through the same learning principles that Pavlov discovered, based on his studies of digestion in dogs? Salivating to the sound of a tone may not be harmful, but salivating at the sight of a Scotch bottle may well be dangerous to people battling alcoholism?

4. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-4 Scheduling tests on specific days may inadvertently reinforce students to cram just before exams and to slack off afterwards? Many people develop fears of various creatures even though they have had no direct negative experiences with them? Did You Know That… (Cont’d)

5. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-5 What is Learning? A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience Learning is adaptive Three major types of learning: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive learning

6. Module 5.1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

7. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-7 Module 5.1 Preview Questions What is learning? What is classical conditioning? What roles do extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, and discrimination play in classical conditioning? What stimulus characteristics strengthen conditioned responses?

8. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-8 Module 5.1 Preview Questions (Cont’d) What is the cognitive perspective on classical conditioning? What are some examples of classical conditioning in daily life?

9. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-9 Classical Conditioning Discovered by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Learning by association

10. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-10 Figure 5.1: Apparatus Similar to One Used in Pavlov’s Experiments

11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-11 Figure 5.2: Diagramming Classical Conditioning

12. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-12 Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction: The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a CR Spontaneous Recovery: The spontaneous return of a CR following extinction Reconditioning: The process of relearning a CR after extinction

13. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-13 Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus Generalization: Tendency of stimuli similar to the CS to elicit the CR One explanation for feelings of déjà-vu Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to differentiate among related stimuli

14. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-14 Figure 5.3: Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

15. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-15 Stimulus Characteristics that Strengthen Conditioned Responses Frequency of pairings Timing Intensity of US

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-16 Cognitive Perspective Robert Rescorla: Conditioning depends on the informational value of the CS CS must reliably predict the occurrence of the US. Cognitive perspective on classical conditioning Has important survival implications

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-17 Examples of Classical Conditioning Conditioned emotional reactions (CER) Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert experiment Phobias Positive emotions Drug cravings Conditioned taste aversions Immune system changes Continue

18. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-18 Figure 5.4: The Conditioning of “Little Albert” Return

19. Module 5.2 Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences

20. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-20 Module 5.2 Preview Questions What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect? What is operant conditioning? What are the different types of reinforcers? What are schedules of reinforcement, and how do they differ?

21. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-21 Module 5.2 Preview Questions (Cont’d) How are schedules of reinforcement related to learning? Why are psychologists concerned about the use of punishment? What are some applications of operant conditioning?

22. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-22 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning: Learning results from the association between stimuli before a response occurs Operant Conditioning: Learning results from the association of a response with its consequences

23. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-23 Figure 5.5: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

24. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-24 Thorndike’s Law of Effect The tendency of a response to occur depends on the effects it has on the environment. Responses that have satisfying effects are strengthened and more likely to occur again. Reinforcement Responses that lead to discomfort are weakened and less likely to occur again. Punishment

25. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-25 B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning Skinner believed in radical behaviorism. Behavior is completely determined by environment and genetics. Free will is an illusion or a myth. Organisms learn responses that operate on the environment to produce consequences. “Operant conditioning” or “instrumental learning”

26. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-26 Operant Conditioning Consequences of a response determines the likelihood that the response will occur again. The response is called an operant response. A reinforcer is the stimulus or event that increases the likelihood that the behavior it follows will be repeated. The longer the reinforcement is delayed, the weaker its effects will be. Operant conditioning can be used to explain some forms of superstitious behavior.

27. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-27 Principles of Operant Conditioning Discriminative Stimulus: A cue that signals reinforcement is available if a particular response is made Types of Reinforcement: Positive: Reinforce by adding something pleasant Negative: Reinforce by removing something unpleasant

28. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-28 Figure 5.6: Types of Reinforcers

29. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-29 Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that are intrinsically rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives Secondary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers

30. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-30 Shaping Application of the method of successive approximations Reinforce responses that are closer and closer to correct response

31. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-31 Extinction Process by which responses are weakened and eventually eliminated Occurs when the response is repeatedly performed but is no longer reinforced

32. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-32 Schedules of Reinforcement When is reinforcement delivered? Continuous Reinforcement: Every response is reinforced. Partial Reinforcement: Only a portion of the responses is reinforced. Ratio schedules: fixed or variable Interval schedules: fixed or variable

33. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-33 Figure 5.7: Rates of Response Under Different Schedules of Partial Reinforcement Source: Adapted from Skinner, B. F. (1961). Cumulative Record (3rd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

34. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-34 Escape and Avoidance Learning Escape Learning: Escape an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response Avoidance Learning: Avoid an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response

35. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-35 Punishment Consequence that weakens or suppresses a response Removal of a reinforcing stimulus Introduction of an aversive stimulus

36. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-36 Figure 5.8: Types of Punishment

37. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-37 Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Punishment Introduces an aversive stimulus Weakens a behavior Negative reinforcement Removes an aversive stimulus Strengthens a behavior

38. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-38 Drawbacks of Punishment May suppress undesirable behavior, but does not eliminate it Does not teach new behaviors Can have undesirable consequences May become abusive May represent a form of inappropriate modeling

39. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-39 Table 5.1: Comparing Reinforcement and Punishment

40. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-40 Applications of Operant Conditioning Biofeedback training Behavior modification Token economy program Programmed instruction Computer-assisted instruction

41. Module 5.3 Cognitive Learning

42. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-42 Module 5.3 Preview Questions What is cognitive learning? What is insight learning? What is latent learning? What is observational learning?

43. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-43 Cognitive Learning Involves mental processes that cannot be directly observed Premise is that we are capable of new behaviors without actually having had the chance to perform them or being reinforced for them

44. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-44 Insight Learning Wolfgang Köhler’s (1927) experiment with Sultan the chimp Insight Learning: Process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs The “Aha!” phenomenon Requires restructuring or reorganizing the problem on one’s mind to form a solution

45. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-45 Figure 5.9: Tolman and Honzik’s Study of Latent Learning

46. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-46 Latent Learning “Hidden” learning occurs without reinforcement. Learned behavior displayed only when reinforced Tolman: The rats had developed a cognitive map of the maze. Mental representation of maze

47. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-47 Observational Learning Acquire new behaviors by imitating behaviors observed in others Also called vicarious learning or modeling Allows us to become capable of behaviors even before have chance to do the behaviors ourselves

48. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-48 Observational Learning (Cont’d) Albert Bandura: Children learn to imitate aggressive behavior. “Bobo doll” studies Influence of modeling generally stronger when: Model is similar to the learner Positive reinforcement for performing the behavior is evident

49. Application: Module 5.4 Putting Reinforcement into Practice

50. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-50 Module 5.4 Preview Question What steps are involved in applying reinforcement principles?

51. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-51 Modifying Behavior Important to establish a clear contingency between the desired behavior and the reinforcement Contingency contracting involves an exchange of desirable reinforcers.

52. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-52 Applying Reinforcement Be specific. Use specific language. Select a reinforcer. Explain the contingency. Apply the reinforcer. Track frequency of the desired behavior. Wean the child from the reinforcer.

53. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-53 Giving Praise Make eye contact with the child and smile while giving praise. Use hugs. Be specific. Avoid empty flattery. Reward the effort, not the outcome. Avoid repeating yourself. Don’t end on a sour note.