1. Memory
Joel Cooper
University of Utah

2. Memory Is …
The mechanism we use to create, maintain and retrieve information about the past
Introductory slide to emphasis the important functions of memory. Discuss what life would be like with no memory.

3. Processes in Memory Encoding Storage Retrieval
Processes used to store information in memory
Storage
Processes used to maintain information in memory
Retrieval
Processes used to get information back out of memory

4. Activity 1 Every thing that comes to mind must be written down
No talking
Ready?
Name all the 7 Dwarfs

5. Activity 2 – Now name them.

6. Activity 3 Turn your paper over
Select the correct names from the following list

7. From the Following List Identify the names of the seven dwarfs:
Crabby Sniffy Gabby Cupid Doc
Wheezy Goofy Grouchy Shy Teach
Dasher Sleepy Droopy Lazy Pop
Wishful Grumpy Bashful Scrappy Nifty
Jumpy Gloomy Dopey Silly Sneezy
Happy Shorty Smiley Cheerful Dumpy
Fearful Stubby Tearful Puffy Burpy

8. Activity 4
Recall the names of the 7 Dwarfs in order of appearance in the movie.

9. Activity cont. Activity 1 (Recall) Activity 2 (Cued Recall)
Activity 3 (Recognition)
Activity 4 (Serial Recall)
Let’s look at your errors

10. Common errors Sound Letter “s” and “d” Meaning
Number of syllables
Ending in Y
Letter “s” and “d”
Meaning
Different category names
Santa’s reindeer
Care bears
Smurfs

11. Methods Used to Study Memory
Which type of memory test would you rather have?
An essay or a multiple choice exam?
recall vs. recognition
Most students prefer a multiple choice exam. Ask them why? Typically they say it is easier to recognize the correct answer. You then can lead the discussion to the difference between recall and recognition tests.

12. Recall Tasks Free Recall Cued Recall Serial Recall
Recall all the words you can from the list you saw previously
Cued Recall
Recall everything you can that is associated with _______
Participants are given a cue to facilitate recall
Serial Recall
Recall the names of all previous presidents in the order they were elected
Need to recall order as well as item names

13. Recognition Tasks Circle all the words you previously studied
Indicate which pictures you saw yesterday

14. Implicit or Explicit Memory Tasks
Involves conscious recollection
Participant knows they are trying to retrieve information from their memory
Implicit memory tasks
Require participants to complete a task
The completion of the task indirectly indicates memory

15. Implicit Memory Tasks Participants are exposed to a word list Tiger
Lion
Zebra
Panda
Leopard
Elephant
After a delay…
Participants then complete word puzzles, they are not aware they are a type of memory test
Word fragment Completion:
C_E_TA_
E_E_ _AN_
_ E _ RA
Word Stem Completion:
Mon _____
Pan_____
No connection is made to the previously studied list. Participants are simply asked to make a word out of the word fragment.
Some of the answers will be words the participant has seen before. Some of the fragments will be words they have not seen. Fragment completion rates of the previously seen words are then compared to completion rates of unseen words. The difference between the scores indicates memory.
Answers to Word fragment completion: Cheetah, elephant, zebra; Word stem completion answers: Monkey, Panda.

16. Models of Memory Represent ways that memory has been conceptualized
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s 3 Stage Model of Memory
Craik & Lockhart’s Level of Processing Model
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
Tulving’s Multiple Memory Systems Model
McClelland & Rumelhart’s Connectionist Model

17. Traditional Model of Memory
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) 3 Stage Model
Short Term
Memory (STM)
Long Term
Memory (LTM)
Sensory registers
Stimuli
Information Processing Model

18. Sperling (1960) Iconic Memory Research
Whole report procedure
Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
Identify as many letters as possible
Participants typically remembered 4 letters
Partial Report Procedure
Participants are told to report bottom row
Participants were able to report any row requested

19. Partial Report Technique

20. Averbach & Coriell (1961) Iconic Memory Research
G E U L M F S X
W P M B D H J Y
- Showed matrix for 50 msec
- Place a small mark above a letter at different delays
Results indicated that as many as 12 letters could be stored in
sensory memory
Demonstration and discussion of Averbach & Coriell (1961) study. Just click and the demonstration will begin. See if students can correctly recall the letter F.
Click again to see the full matrix and discuss the experiment.

21. Sensory Stores Iconic store or Visual sensory register
Holds visual information for 250 msec longer
Information held is pre-categorical
Capacity – up to 12 items
Information fades quickly
Econ or Auditory sensory register
Holds auditory information for a 2-3 seconds longer to enable processing

22. Short-Term Memory Rehearsal Attention Rehearsal Retrieval Attention
Attend to information in the sensory store, it moves to STM
Rehearsal
Repeat the information to keep maintained in STM
Retrieval
Access memory in LTM and place in STM
Short Term
Memory (STM)
Attention
Storage & Retrieval

23. Short-Term Memory Short-term /working memory
Limited capacity (7 + or - 2) or 2 sec.
Inputs from SR and LTS
Consciousness
Coding: verbal/spatial
Information can be maintained indefinitely, provided it is given constant attention
Information decays in seconds
Rote vs Chunking mnemonics
Webster says… Mnemonic :
Assisting or designed to assist memory

24. Short-Term Memory How is information lost? Brown-Peterson Task
Decay ==> Time
Interference ==> Older displaced by new
Brown-Peterson Task
Waugh & Norman

25. Brown-Peterson Task Subjects presented with trigram (XQJ)
Experimenter presents number (257)
Subject counts backwards by 3’s (2/sec)
After x seconds, subjects recall trigram

26. Brown-Peterson Task
VRO
187
UYV 89
IDC
131

27. Brown-Peterson Task

28. Proactive Interference in STM
Proactive Interference in STM
Keppel & Underwood (1962)
Replicated the Peterson & Peterson Task varying the time delay to recall
Analysis was done by trial number (1st trial, 2nd trial, 3rd trial, etc.)
Found support for proactive interference

29. Loss or Decay?
Waugh & Norman -- Loss in B-P task could be due to decay or interference, because both covaried with retention interval
Independently varied time and number of intervening items
Does loss follow time or number of items?

30. Waugh & Norman Task Subjects presented with string of digits
Digits read at 1 or 4 per second (time)
Does recall vary as a function of time or items?
1 per second
( 16 sec )
4 per second
( 4 sec )
Probe Digit : 9
Response : 4

31. Waugh & Norman Task

32. Loss from STM Loss is largely due to interference:
Old information is replaced by new
Rehearsal moves info to head of buffer

33. Long-Term Memory Capacity Duration Thus far limitless
Potentially permanent
Long Term
Memory (LTM)

34. Long-Term Store Information comes from STS
Conscious transfer -- Explicit memory
Unconscious transfer -- Implicit memory
Large capacity
Can information be lost from LTS?
Poor retrieval cues
Memories overwritten?

35. Let’s Test Your LTM! You will see several words, one at a time
Do whatever you can to try and remember as many of the words as you can
At the end of the list, try to recall as many words as you can
The following demonstration was created by Thomas P. Pusateri (2004) for Thomson/Wadsworth. The following are his instructions for this demonstration.
ALL-PURPOSE MEMORY DEMONSTRATION
I first saw this demonstration at a workshop presentation by Douglas Bernstein from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. He could not locate the original source of this demonstration, which was introduced to him by one of his teaching assistants in introductory psychology. Before presenting the words, tell students that you will show them a list of words, and their task is to memorize the entire list. Have the students recall the list immediately after you present the last word; do not use a distractor task, otherwise you may not produce a recency effect.
Ask about ten volunteers to report their recall for the words, expose each word individually, and ask for a show of hands from those who recalled the words. Ask the class to explain why the volunteers did well in recalling these words prior to exposing the line that describes the memory effect. Here is a brief explanation of each memory effect, with some elaboration you may use in your discussion:
Primacy effect. The words “bed” and “clock” were the first two words in this list. Most students will recall these words due to the greater opportunity for rehearsing these words.
Recency effect. The words “snore” and “pillow” were the last two words in the list. Most students will recall these words because they are still in their immediate attention (short-term memory) during recall. You may wish to ask students how recall for these words could be disrupted. The answer is by introducing a distractor task after presentation of the list.
Repetition/Rehearsal. Words in the middle of a list are often not well-recalled, however, most students will recall the word “night”. This word was repeated three times in the list, so students had additional opportunity to rehearse this word compared to other words in the middle of the list.
Distinctiveness. Most of the words are associated with each other. However, one word in the list, “artichoke” is so different than the others that it is often recalled, even though it appears in the middle of the list. You may discuss this as an example of deeper processing of a word that is distinctive, salient, and unusual.
Semantic Organization. First ask the volunteers if they recalled the word “toss”. (You may want to include the entire class in this question, to produce a larger potential response rate.) Then, ask those who recalled “toss” whether they followed recall of the word “toss” immediately by recall of the word “turn”. There will be several students who recall the words as a pair, even though they are separated in the list and “turn” precedes “toss”. You may discuss this as a form of semantic organization (which is more thoroughly discussed in Chapter 9 of Reed’s text). I also tie it into the definition of elaboration of memory. The words are very highly associated and easily connected together in students’ recall.
“False Memory”. Ask the whole class if anyone recalled the word “sleep”. Ask those students who recalled this word to attempt to recall where in the list the word appeared. Was it in the first half or the last half of the list? Most students who recall the word will report that they “know” it is in the list, but they cannot “remember” exactly where the word appeared. You may then discuss current research by Jacoby, Roediger, and other researchers on the “know/remember” distinction. You may also tie this into a discussion of other, more elaborate examples of possible false memory (e.g., the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, and the current controversy surrounding adult memory of childhood sexual abuse).

36. Bed
Clock
Dream
Night
Turn
Mattress
Snooze
Nod
Artichoke
Insomnia
Rest
Toss
Night
Alarm
Nap
Snore
Pillow

37. Write down the words you saw

38. Words Bed Clock Dream Night Turn Mattress Snooze Nod
Artichoke Insomnia Rest Toss Night Alarm Nap Snore Pillow

39. Memory Demonstration Did you Recall? Bed or Clock Snore or Pillow
Night
Artichoke
Toss and Turn
Sleep
Explanation
Primacy
Recency
Spacing Effect
Distinctiveness
Clustering
False Memory

40. Serial Position Curve

41. Effects of Rehearsal Rhundus -- subjects rehearsed outloud
Primacy curve matched rehearsal curve
Primacy determined by transfer to LTM

42. Effects of Distracters
Glanzer -- distractor task at end of list
Recency portion of curve abolished
Recency determined by readout from STM

43. Serial Position Curves
Primacy determined by transfer to LTM
Recency determined by readout from STM

44. Levels of Processing Model of Memory
Craik & Lockhart (1972)
Process level different strengths of memories
Deep processing better memory; elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory
Shallow processing emphasizes the physical features of the stimulus; the memory trace is fragile and quickly decays
Maintenance rehearsal (Rote) vs. Elaborative rehearsal
Craik, F.I.M., & Lockhart, R.S. (1972). Levels of processing. A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 11,

45. Support for Levels of Processing
Craik & Watkins (1973)
Participants listened to lists of words
Task was to recall the last word in the list which began with a particular letter
The number of intervening words between words beginning with the target letter was varied
Assumption
Whenever a word beginning with the target letter would be encountered, it would be maintained via rehearsal in STM until the next word beginning with the target letter was heard.

46. Craik & Watkins (1973) Results
Recall of words was independent of the length of time (the number of intervening words) it was maintained in STM
Conclusion: Maintenance rehearsal did not automatically lead to LTM
Levels-of-Processing Interpretation: Students rehearsed the words without elaborating on the meaning of the words, only concentrating on the initial consonant sound—rehearsing at a shallow level

47. Depth of Processing
Craik & Lockhart LEVEL QUESTION - Structural Capital letters - Phonemic Rhyme Categorical Type of fish - Sentence Fit in sentence * **
***
****

48. Craik & Tulving (1975) Results

49. Criticisms of LOP Model
Circular definition of levels
Transfer appropriate processing effect
Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977)
Two processing tasks: semantic vs. rhyme
Two types of tests: standard yes/no recognition vs. rhyme test 
Memory performance also depends on the match between encoding processes and type of test
Encoding Task
Recognition
Rhyme
Semantic
0.83
0.31
0.62
0.49

50. Visuospatial Sketchpad
Working Memory Model
Baddeley & Hitch, 1974
Phonological Loop
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Central Executive
Spatial - Where
Visual - What
Phonological store - 2 sec.
Norman and Shallice – 1986
Action Plan
Contention Scheduling
Supervisory attentional system (SAS)
Articulatory control process

51. Working Memory Model Articulatory Loop Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad
Used to maintain information for a short time and for acoustic rehearsal
Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad
Used for maintaining and processing visuo-spatial information
Episodic Buffer
Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding an integrated episode between systems using different codes

52. Working Memory Model Central Executive
Focuses attention on relevant items and inhibiting irrelevant ones
Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules processes in complex tasks, often switches attention between different parts
Updates and checks content to determine next step in sequence of parts

53. Working Memory Model Support
Baddeley (1986)
Participants studied two different list types
1 syllable: wit, sum, harm, bay, top
5 syllables: university, opportunity, aluminum, constitutional, auditorium
Reading rate seemed to determine recall performance
Supports conceptualization of an articulatory loop

54. Working Memory Model Support
Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad
Dual-task paradigm
Sketchpad can be disrupted by requiring participants to tap repeatedly a specified pattern of keys or locations while using imagery at the same time

55. Multiple-Memory Systems Model
Tulving (1972)
Semantic Memory
General knowledge
Facts, definitions, historical dates
Episodic Memory
Event memories (first kiss, 6th birthday)
Procedural Memory
Memories on how to do something (skiing, biking, tying your shoe)

56. Multiple-Memory Systems Model Support
Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving (1996)
PET technology to look at episodic and semantic memory
Asked people to engage in semantic or episodic memory tasks while being monitored by PET  
Results 
Left (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in encoding (both) and in semantic memory retrieval
Right (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in retrieval of episodic memory
Nyberg, L., Cabeza, R., & Tulving, E. (1996). PET studies of encoding and retrieval: The HERA model. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3,

57. Connectionist Perspective
Parallel distributed processing model
Memory uses a network
Meaning comes from patterns of activation across the entire network
Spreading Activation Network Model
Supported by priming effects

58. Deficient Memory Amnesias Retrograde Amnesia Infantile Amnesia
Loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma
Infantile Amnesia
Inability to recall events of young childhood
Antereograde Amnesia
No memory for events that occur after the trauma

59. Amnesia Studies
Study antereograde amnesiacs using implicit and explicit memory tests
Amnesiacs show normal priming (implicit), but poor recognition memory (explicit)
They did not remember having seen the word list, but completed the word fragments at the same rate as normals

60. Hippocampus and Memory
Critical for integration and consolidation
Essential for declarative memory
Without the hippocampus only the learning of skills and habits, simple conditioning, and the phenomenon of priming can occur