1. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

2. What’s in this chapter? (Unit Objectives)
QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED
What motivates you to do something?
Can you figure out what motivates others and use it to your advantage?
What motives are learned and what are instinctive?
What motivations are needed to survive?
Why are we driven by the need to be accepted?
Are you an emotionally healthy person?
What things, events people can make us more emotional?
Is emotion an expression or is it something physical?
Are we better off controlling our negative emotions or releasing them?
Have you ever been without an emotion and it seemed strange?

3. What is motivation? Motivation:
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

4. Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory: (biological)
Sigmund Freud Psychosexual / Psychodynamic Theory of Personality and Human Motivation.
Sexual and inappropriate emotions drive us with instinctive urges
Drive Reduction Theory: (biological)
Need to stabilize internal physiological state or to reach homeostasis the maintenance of a steady internal state
Clark Hull’s (1930) Motivational Theory.
Central State Theory (biological)
Drives as states of the Brain : the hypothalamus

5. Theories cont… Abraham Maslow’s (1970) Hierarchy of Human Needs.
Humanistic Theory: (humanistic)
Abraham Maslow’s (1970) Hierarchy of Human Needs.
Arousal Theory:
We need a certain amount of arousal to stay energized: our love of horror movies
Rats were more curious in sections of maze that had mild electric shock
Cognitive Motivational Theory (Julian Rotter, 1954):Perception of control over life’s events motivate human behaviors, specifically:
Locus of Control:
Internal locus of control (ILC).
External locus of control (ELC).

6. What are the Sources of Motivation?
Instincts: “unlearned (urges) wants”
Needs: “What I want” (can be learned)
Drives. “How I feel without it”
Motives. “Why I want it” (the reason)
Incentives. “What it means to me” or
(What it does for me)

7. Motivational Concepts
Instinct: a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned or developed without practice
Biological pre-disposition
List 1 instinctive behavior that you would do every day.
Are you able to act on it or; are you sometimes frustrated by not being able to satisfy it?

8. A need is: “What I want” Ex: hunger = food deprivation.
a biological or psychological state of deprivation which usually triggers motivational arousal
List an instinctive need in which you feel deprived
1. Write it as ________=___________
(what) (how I feel without it)
Ex: hunger = food deprivation.
an unpleasant condition which requires
satisfaction
2. On a scale of 1-10 How unpleasant is the
need.
3. Hedonism: Is the drive “self-centered”
Pleasure seeking

9. A drive is: “How I feel without it”
a biological or psychological state of arousal in an organism associated with needs:
i.e., needs give rise to drives.
conscious recognition of need (e.g., hunger)  stomach growls, dizziness).
Name a psychological need and describe the state of arousal you are in when having that particular need.
______________=______________
(remember it is a state of feeling
unbalanced)

10. A motive is: “Why I want it”
cognitive: the way we think
or emotional: the way we feel
that arouses organisms to action or behavior
Examples of motives are hope, expectations, desire, love,
anger, beliefs.
Look at your instinctive or
psychological need and think
of the motive behind it.
_______=_______why_______

11. An incentive is: “What it does for me”
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
can be perceived as a reward / reinforcement that increases the likelihood of (i.e., the motivation for) future behavior.
satisfies needs and reduces drives.
can also serve as a motive for behavior.
Look at the incentive to your need.
_______=________why _______ because_______
need drive motive incentive

12. Instincts Ex: Infant rooting and sucking, attachment
Supposedly 5,759 human instincts
aides in human survival

13. Freud’s Psychosexual Instinct Theory of Motivation
Freud: “Sexual anatomy/biology is destiny”.
The “fuels” of human motivational development and human personality:
Eros -- the life force.
Thanatos -- the death force.
Libido -- the sex drive that fuels eros.
Erogenous zones-- sensitive body areas

14. Needs

15. Needs Hunger. Sex. Thirst. Sleep. Types of Biological Needs
Types of Psychological Needs
Intrinsic (internal needs) Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1980).
Extrinsic (external needs) Motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1980).
Self-efficacy (proficiency needs) (Bandura, 1977; 1986).
Social (social needs) Motivation
(McClelland et al., 1953):
Need for Achievement .
Need for Affiliation ; affection

16. Psychological Needs Intrinsic Motivation:
A cognitive or emotional state (motive) that:
lies within the individual.
i.e., the individual is SELF-motivated & SELF-reinforcing
is not dependent on external sources.
results in motivation from inside self:
e.g., fun, sincere interest, & enjoyment.
The ultimate goal of sport and physical activity programs is to nurture an emphasis on intrinsic motives that meet the developmental needs of participants and are in turn the primary determinant of future participation behavior and performance, according to Maureen Weiss.
Achievement motivation- theories that are interested in understanding motivation in the context of achievement settings. Most of what we are talking about today is concerned with achievement motivation in one way or another.

17. Psychological Needs Extrinsic Motivation:
A cognitive or emotional state (motive) that:
also lies inside the individual, but...
is dependent on external sources:
the individual is OTHER-motivated for continuation of her/his behavior.
the individual is dependent on material reinforcement(s) for future behavior performance
results in motivation from outside self:
e.g., trophies, ribbons, money, praise.

18. Psychological Needs Self-Efficacy
Bandura’s (1977, 1986) concept, defined as:
the belief that one possesses the ability
to perform a behavior at a specified level
at a specific task.
belief in one’s own ability to succeed motivates future behavioral success / perform.
= higher intrinsic motivation.

19. Psychological Needs Social Motives
Include...
McClelland’s (1953) need for Achievement:
Competence, full potential
Traits/behaviors of individuals w/ high need for Achievement.
McClelland’s (1953) need for Affection:
love & belongingness.
Traits/behaviors of individuals w/ high need for Affection.

20. Kurt Lewin’s motivational theory
Approach-avoidance conflict that often results with drives:
There is a conflict between something you want to approach and something you want to avoid.
You want a car but you want to avoid the cost/time/work involved with owning one.
You want closeness/romance but you want to avoid the cost/time/work/sacrifice/heart break involved in maintaining a relationship.
Other types of conflict as well; approach-approach, avoidance-approach
Each conflict requires an individual to resolve conflicting desires to approach something desirable and avoid something undesirable.

21. Humanistic Theory
Humans are motivated to meet their full potential as a human being
Must start with most basic needs first and move on to higher needs

22. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied
then higher-level safety needs become active
then psychological needs become active
Self-actualization needs
Need to live up to one’s
fullest and unique potential
Esteem needs
Need for self-esteem,
achievement, competence,
and independence; need for
recognition and respect from others
Belongingness and love needs
Need to love and be loved, to belong
and be accepted; need to avoid
loneliness and alienation
Safety needs
Need to feel that the world is organized and
predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
Physiological needs
Need to satisfy hunger and thirst

23. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Exemplified
Apply Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to the following research:
Being unable to focus on attaining an education when one has to walk miles and miles each to attain clean water (top of the heavy loads and certain risk of illness from drinking contaminated water, it is estimated that over 40 billion work and school hours are lost every year in Africa to the act of fetching clean drinking water, Blood Water Mission).
Financial satisfaction is more strongly predictive of subjective well-being in poor nations than in wealthy ones.

24. SURVIVOR Watch the film “Survivor”
find THREE examples of each need in Maslow’s Hierarchy
Explain how it is being used by a survivor
Example:
-Safety need: Chris is worried that the shelter is not going to hold up in the rain.
-Sam was worried that he was the next to be voted off at tribal council.

25. Drives
Result from needs

26. Motivation Drive-Reduction Theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
Drive-reducing
behaviors
(eating, drinking)
Need
(e.g., for
food, water)
Drive
(hunger, thirst)

27. It was an urge. ... A strong urge, and the longer I let it go the stronger it got, to where I was taking risks to go out and kill people — risks that normally, according to my little rules of operation, I wouldn't take because they could lead to arrest."
— Edmund Kemper 
Notorious Serial Killer

28. Drives as Tissue Needs
Homeostasis - the constancy of internal conditions that the body must actively maintain
Drives may be an upset in homeostasis, inducing behavior to correct the imbalance
However, homeostasis cannot explain all drives
Keywords: homeostasis

29. Types of Drives
Regulatory drives - helps preserve homeostasis (e.g., hunger, thirst, oxygen)
Nonregulatory drives - serve other purposes (e.g., sex, achievement)
Keywords: regulatory drives, nonregulatory drives

30. Drives as States of the Brain
Central state theory of drives -
Central drive system - set of neurons in which activity constitutes a drive
Techniques for studying central drive systems include lesions and stimulation
Keywords: central state theory of drives, central drive system

31. Drives as States of the Brain
The hub of many central drive systems lies in the hypothalamus

32. Drive Associated with the HYPOTHALAMUS
HUNGER
SEX
Detects sex hormone levels & activates sexual arousal
THIRST

33. A surgical operation widely used in the 50s to perform prefrontal lobotomies for mental disease. Consisted of inserting a blade through the roof bone of one of the eye orbits using a hammer and local anesthesia. The movement of the blade severed important connections between the frontal areas and the rest of the brain.

34. PET images of the brain of a normal person (left), a murderer with deprived background (middle) and a murderer with non-deprived background (right). Areas in red and yellow show a higher metabolic activity, and in black and blue of lower metabolic activity. The brain of a sociopath (right) has a very low activity in many areas, but which is strikingly absent in the frontal area (upper part of the images).

35. Hunger
The hypothalamus controls eating and other body maintenance functions

36. Hunger Drive Two areas of the hypothalamus,
the lateral and ventromedial areas, play a central role
in the hunger
drive
hypothalamus
Keywords: hypothalamus, lateral area, ventromedial area
hypothalamus

37. Graded Textbook Assignment
Page The Physiology of Hunger
With a partner explain the following studies.
Cannon and Washburn, 1912
Lemonick, 2002
Tsang, 1938
McHugh and Moran, 1978
Sakurai 1998
Duggan and Booth, 1986
Miller, 1995

38. Lateral Area Stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus brings on hunger
Stimulation causes drives in response to available incentives
Electrical lesions to hypothalamus cause a loss of all goal-directed behavior (laterally starve to death)
Keywords: lateral area

39. Ventromedial Area
The Ventromedial hypothalamus is in control of reducing hunger.
Lesions alter digestive and metabolic processes
Food is converted into fat rather than energy molecules, causing animal to eat much more than normal and gain weight
Keywords: ventromedial area

40. Hunger Drive
Other stimuli that act on the brain to increase or decrease hunger include
satiety signals from the stomach
signals indicating the amount of food molecules in the blood
leptin, a hormone indicating the amount of fat in the body
Keywords: leptin, appetizer effect

41. Hunger Glucose the form of sugar that circulates in the blood
provides the major source of energy for body tissues
when its level is low, we feel hunger….so increases insulin increases hunger indirectly

42. Hunger Set Point Basal Metabolic Rate
the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set
when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight
Basal Metabolic Rate
body’s base rate of energy expenditure

43. Motivation-Hunger

44. Taste Preference Graded Group Work cont.
Taste Preference; biology or culture?
Page 463
Elliot Stellar, 1985
Beauchamp, 1987
Pliner and Pelchat, 1991

45. Hunger (cont’d.) Eating and its measurement as a function of hunger:
aphagia -- undereating, possibly due to:
lesions in the LH.
 norepinephrine.
stress-induced aphagia / anorexia.
hyperphagia -- overeating, possibly due to:
lesions in the VMNH.
 serotonin.
stress-induced hyperphagia / binge eating.

46. Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa
when a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly (>15%) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve
usually an adolescent female
Bulimia Nervosa
disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

47. Women and body image socially/culturally influenced?

48. Apply concept of motivation based on: instinct, need, drive, motive, incentive

49. Women’s Body Images

50. Sex Drive Defined as the “urge to merge”
Like hunger drive, sex drive is also regulated by the hypothalamus
Study: Sex offenders voluntarily took Depo Provera: (birth control) reduces sexual appetite to pre-pubertal boy
a physiologically based motive, like hunger, but it is more affected by learning and values

51. Sex Drive Sexual response cycle (Masters & Johnson):
excitement phase: genital engorgement of both genders with blood
plateau phase: excitement peaks
orgasm phase: release experienced by both the male and female….just prior to this phrase for men, enough sperm is typically released so that the orgasm will enable conception… the female orgasm also facilitates conception via uterine positioning and drawing the sperm further inward
resolution phase. The refractory period occurs
The whole goal of this cycle is for conception to take place!

52. Sexual Motivation Refractory Period Sexual Disorder
resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
Male: a few minutes to a few days
Female: minimal, may experience an orgasm shortly after resolution
Sexual Disorder
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

53. Sexual Motivation Estrogen Testosterone
a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males
in nonhuman females, levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity
Testosterone
most important of the male sex hormones
both males and females have it
extra testosterone in males stimulates growth of sex organs in the fetus and development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

54. Forces Affecting Sexual Motivation

55. Sexual Motivation
Same drives, different attitudes

56. Sexual Motivation Sexual Orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

57. Sex (cont’d.) Sexual orientation -- definitions / types:
heterosexuality.
homosexuality.
bisexuality.
sexual orientation appears to be regulated by:
the INAH-3 (LeVay, 1991).
in utero, pre-natal androgen levels.
some say more nature than nurture.

58. Sexual Motivation

59. Sex Drive
Increased production of testosterone and estrogen at puberty is responsible for physical differentiation
Increased secretion of DHEA, primary adrenal sex hormone, is responsible for sexual feelings
Keywords: testosterone, estrogen, DHEA, sex drive

60. Sex Drive
Sex and Human values “pair share” Pg

61. COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL MOTIVATION
The need/drive to work and achieve

64. Motivation at Work Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

65. Motivation at Work Personnel Psychology Organizational Psychology
sub-field of I-O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development
Organizational Psychology
sub-field of I-O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change

66. Motivation at Work

67. Motivation at Work How do we find the right person for the job?
Flow
a completely, involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills
Structured Interview
process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants
applicants rated on established scales
Identifies high performers in particular lines of work
Different from the “interviewer illusion” which states that informal interviews are effective for determining job success

68. Motivation at Work Achievement Motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment
for mastery of things, people, or ideas
for attaining a high standard
Definite Differences Perspectives
Job: view work as a necessary but personally unfulfilling
Career: opportunity to advance in positions
Calling: fulfilling & socially useful; most satisfaction

69. Motivation at work Task Leadership Social Leadership
goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals
Social Leadership
group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

70. Appraising Work Performance
Theory X
assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money
workers should be directed from above
frequently monitor workers to ensure productivity
Theory Y
assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity

71. Appraising Work Performance
Halo errors: overall evaluation of an employee or trait biases ratings of their specific work-related behaviors
Leniency & Severity errors: tendency to be too lenient or too harsh on everyone
Recency errors: rater focus only on easily remembered recent behavior

72. Motivation at Work
360-degree feedback

73. The Need to Belong Aiding to survive Wanting to belong
Acting to increase social acceptance
Maintaining Relationship
When threatened negative emotions overwhelm us
Social ostracism with depressed moods, initial efforts to restore acceptance, & withdrawal
Can develop into more severe behaviors overtime

74. EMOTION

75. Emotion Emotion a response of the whole organism Basic Components
Embodied emotion (physiological arousal)
Expressed emotion (expressed behaviors)
Experienced emotion (conscious experience)

76. Embodied Emotion
Physiological reaction; heart pounding, sweating, nervousness, dilated pupils, respiratory change, etc

77. Expressed Emotion Emotion is expressed in a behavior;
Smiling, frowning, walking faster, hands held up in triumph
Can be verbal or non-verbal

78. Experienced Emotion
Cognitive or conscious awareness of our emotional state;
Anger
Fear
Elation
depression

79. Theories of Emotion
Does your heart pound because you are afraid... or are you afraid because you feel your heart pounding?

80. James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
Fear
(emotion)
Pounding
heart
(arousal)
Sight of
oncoming
car
(perception of
stimulus)

81. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Sight of
oncoming
car
(perception of
stimulus)
Pounding
heart
(arousal)
Fear
(emotion)
Emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger:
physiological responses
subjective experience of emotion

82. Partner work Page 501-502 Hohmann 1966 Schacter and Singer 1962
Zillman 1986
Palace 1995
6. Page
7. Sokoll, Mynatt 1984 and Hembree, 1988
8. Kalin 1993, Panksepp 1982
9. Harmon-Jones, Abramson 2002, Goleman 1995
10. Davidson and Ekman 1990

83. Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Cognitive
label
“I’m afraid”
Fear
(emotion)
Sight of
oncoming
car
(perception of
stimulus)
Pounding
heart
(arousal)
To experience emotion one must:
be physically aroused
cognitively label the arousal

84. Cognition and Emotion
The brain’s shortcut for emotions- most automatic a rapid emotional response goes from the routing of sensory input form the thalamus to the amygdala

85. In 1966, a young man named Charles Whitman killed his wife and mother and then climbed to the top of a tower at the University of Texas and shot 38 people.
An Autopsy later revealed a tumor in his limbic system.

86. Two Dimensions of Emotion
Positive
valence
Negative
High
arousal
Low
pleasant
relaxation
joy
sadness
fear
anger

87. Emotion and Physiology
Autonomic nervous system controls
physiological arousal
Sympathetic
division (arousing)
Pupils dilate
Decreases
Perspires
Increases
Accelerates
Inhibits
Secrete stress
hormones
Parasympathetic
division (calming)
Pupils contract
Dries
Slows
Activates
secretion of
stress
EYES
SALIVATION
SKIN
RESPIRATION
HEART
DIGESTION
ADRENAL
GLANDS

88. Arousal and Performance
Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well-learned tasks

89. Emotion- Lie Detectors
Polygraph
machine commonly used in attempts to detect lies
measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion
perspiration
cardiovascular
breathing changes

90. Emotion--A Polygraph Examination

91. Emotion--Lie Detectors
Control Question
Example- Up to age 18, did you ever physically harm anyone?
Relevant Question
Example- Did [the deceased] threaten to harm you in any way?
Relevant > Control --> Lie

92. Emotion- Lie Detectors
Control
question
Relevant
(a)
(b)
Respiration
Perspiration
Heart rate

93. Emotion- Lie Detectors
50 Innocents
50 Theives
1/3 of innocent declared guilty
1/4 of guilty declared innocent (from Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984)

94. Emotion- Lie Detectors
Is 70% accuracy good?
Assume 5% of 1000 employees actually guilty
test all employees
285 will be wrongly accused
What about 95% accuracy?
Assume 1 in 1000 employees actually guilty
test all employees (including 999 innocents)
50 wrongly declared guilty
1 of 51 testing positive are guilty (~2%)

95. Expressed Emotion
As people experience negative emotions, the right frontal lobe of the brain becomes more electrically active.
Introverts are better than extraverts at recognizing nonverbal expressions of emotion in others.
Women are much better at conveying happiness.
Women are more effective in discerning if someone is telling a lie and they are more effective in discerning which of two people in a photo is the other’s superviors.

96. Expressed Emotion
People more speedily detect an angry face than a happy one (Ohman, 2001a)

97. Expressed Emotion Gender and expressiveness Number of expressions
Men
Women
Sad Happy Scary
Film Type 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
Number of
expressions

98. Expressed Emotion
Culturally universal expressions and understandable language are facial expressions (even blind children)

99. Experiment Can you spot a fake smile?

100. Partner work cont. Page 511 Kestenbaum 1992 Rosenthal, Hall 1979
Ambady 1995
Page
Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1971
Galati 1997
Figure 13.13
Flack 1999
Burns Vaughn and Lanzetta 1981

101. Experienced Emotion
The ingredients of emotion

102. Experienced Emotion
Infants’ naturally occurring emotions

103. Experienced Emotion
The Amygdala--a neural key to fear learning

104. Experienced Emotion Catharsis Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
emotional release
catharsis hypothesis
“releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood, increasing the helping of others

105. Experienced Emotion Subjective Well-Being
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life
Most strongly influenced by genetic predispositions
used along with measures of objective well-being
physical and economic indicators to evaluate people’s quality of life
Can be improved by regular aerobic exercise

106. Experienced Emotion
Moods across the day

107. Experienced Emotion
Changing materialism

108. Experienced Emotion Does money buy happiness? Average per-person
Year
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10% 0%
Average
per-person
after-tax income
in 1995 dollars
Percentage
describing
themselves as
very happy
$20,000
$19,000
$18,000
$17,000
$16,000
$15,000
$14,000
$13,000
$12,000
$11,000
$10,000
$9,000
$8,000
$7,000
$6,000
$5,000
$4,000
Percentage very happy
Personal income

109. Experienced Emotion Adaptation-Level Phenomenon Relative Deprivation
tendency to form judgments relative to a “neutral” level
brightness of lights
volume of sound
level of income
defined by our prior experience; the novel becomes normal
Relative Deprivation
perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself
Personal happiness is heavily influenced by genetic predispositions

110. Happiness is... However, Happiness Seems Not Much
Researchers Have Found That
Happy People Tend to
Have high self-esteem
(in individualistic countries)
Be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable
Have close friendships or a satisfying
marriage
Have work and leisure that engage
their skills
Have a meaningful religious faith
Sleep well and exercise
However, Happiness Seems Not Much
Related to Other Factors, Such as
Age
Gender (women are more often
depressed, but also more often joyful)
Education levels
Parenthood (having children or not)
Physical attractiveness

111. Can you answer these questions now?
What motivates you to do something?
What are some theories of motivation?
Can you figure out what motivates others and use it to your advantage?
What motives are learned and what are instinctive?
What motivations/drives are needed for survival?
Why are we driven by the need to be accepted?
Are you an emotionally healthy person?
What things, events people can make us more emotional?
Is emotion an expression or is it something physical?
Are we better off controlling our negative emotions or releasing them?
Have you ever been without an emotion? How would you explain it?