1. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 9 Psychological Development This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-131-73180-7

2. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology – The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences

3. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do Psychologists Explain Development? Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of heredity and the environment

4. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Nature-nurture issue – Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes…people usually ask, is it one or the other…psychologists are more interested in how they work together

5. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, (especially identical twins raised in different environments…adoption), are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects. Since twins separated at birth are difficult to find, identical twins and fraternal twins are compared (fraternal twins act as the control group; they are about 50% genetically similar)

6. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Identical twins– A pair who started life as a single fertilized egg which later split into two distinct individuals (genes are 100% the same) Fraternal twins– A pair who started life as two separate fertilized eggs that happened to share the same womb

7. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family

8. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Gradual versus Abrupt Change Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view Age Performance Continuity view Discontinuity view

9. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Gradual versus Abrupt Change Developmental stages – Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning…people go through the same stages in the same order, but not necessarily at the same rate

10. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Traits in Your Genes While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence: General intelligence Sexual orientation Thrill seeking Basic temperament/personality Depression Schizophrenia Fear/anxiety Personality disorders Tourette’s syndrome Alzheimer’s disease Environment=not only learning from experiences, but also physical factors such as nutrition and stress

11. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Capabilities Does the Child Possess? Newborns have innate abilities for finding nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful situations; the developing abilities of infants and children rely on learning

12. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Prenatal Development Prenatal period – The developmental period before birth Zygote…fertilized egg/cell divisions/implants Embryo…10 days after zygote/differentiation Fetus…8 weeks (half a foot long) Placenta – An organ that develops between the embryo/fetus and the mother…screens some substances Teratogens – Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism…drugs/viruses

13. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Neonatal Period (from birth to one month) Neonate means newborn… Sensory abilities— can look for a source of food automatically, can smile, nearsighted, but can look at faces, make eye contact Motor abilities Postural reflex Grasping reflex

14. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Infancy—refers to speech (from one month to about 18 months) Babies learn through classical conditioning Brain shifts attention from new cells to more connections between neurons…synaptic pruning Attachment/imprinting in birds… Humans apparently have an inborn need for attachment Secure attachment=feel safe, willing to explore Anxious-ambivalent attachment=fear and anger Avoidant attachment=unconcerned

15. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Contact Comfort Harry and Margaret Harlow theorized that infants seek more than just food An experiment was conducted with orphaned monkeys: two surrogate mothers were presented…one was just for feeding, the other with a cloth like fur. The monkeys preferred the surrogate with the fur; contact was important!

16. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Infancy (from one month to about 18 months) Maturation – The unfolding of genetically programmed processes of growth and development over time

17. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Birth

18. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Responds to sound Becomes quiet when picked up Vocalizes occasionally Birth 1 mo.

19. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Smiles socially Recognizes mother Rolls from side to back Lifts head and holds it straight and steady Birth1 mo. 2 mo.

20. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Vocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adult Searches for source of sound Sits with support, head steady Birth1 mo.2 mo. 3 mo.

21. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball moved across table Sits with slight support Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo. 4 mo.

22. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Discriminates strangers from familiar persons Turns from back to side Makes distinctive vocalizations Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo. 5 mo.

23. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Lifts cup and bangs it Smiles at mirror image Reaches for small object Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo. 6 mo.

24. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Makes playful responses to mirror Sits alone steadily Crawls Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.

25. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Vocalizes up to four different syllables Listens selectively to familiar words Pulls to standing position Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo. 8 mo.

26. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo. 9 mo.

27. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Plays pat-a-cake Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo. 10 mo.

28. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Stands alone Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo.10 mo. 11 mo.

29. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Motor Control Walks alone Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo.10 mo.11 mo. 1 year

30. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Are the Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Childhood? Infants and children face especially important developmental tasks in the areas of cognition and social relationships – tasks that lay a foundation for further growth in adolescence and adulthood

31. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cognitive Development Cognitive development – The process by which thinking changes over time Schemas – Mental structures or programs that guide a developing child’s thoughts Assimilation/accomodation…

32. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Accommodation – Mental process that restructures existing schemes so that new information is better understood Cognitive Development Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schemes

33. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational

34. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational Birth to about age 2 Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli Sensorimotor intelligence Mental representations Object permanence

35. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational About age 2 to age 6 or 7 Marked by well- developed mental representation and the use of language Egocentrism Animistic thinking Centration

36. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational About age 7 to about age 11 Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought Conservation Mental operations

37. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational From about age 12 on Abstract thought appears

38. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Social and Emotional Development Theory of Mind – An awareness that other people’s behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one’s own Temperament – An individual’s characteristic manner of behavior or reaction…strong genetic influence (Jerome Kagan believes some are “born bold” or “born shy”)

39. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Social and Emotional Development Zone of proximal development – The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance Socialization – The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society

40. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 1.Authoritarian parents—cold and rigid, demanding and punishing, make most decisions 2.Authoritative parents—warm and attentive, reasonable with explanations, listens to child’s viewpoint 3.Permissive parents—warm but spoils, little demands, allows decisions 4.Uninvolved parents—detached, little demands or interest, indifferent Social and Emotional Development Parenting Styles…

41. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Social and Emotional Development Other factors influencing a child’s development may include: Effects of day care School influences Leisure influences Gender differences in socialization

42. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Age Principal Challenge 0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust 1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt 3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt 6 years to puberty Competence vs. inferiority Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Late adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair

43. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Changes Mark the Transition of Adolescence? Adolescence offers new developmental challenges growing out of physical changes, cognitive changes, and socioemotional changes

44. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Transitions of Adolescence Adolescence – Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood

45. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Physical Maturation in Adolescence Puberty – Onset of sexual maturity Around puberty, boys and girls become more aware of their physical attractiveness and others’ attractiveness

46. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cognitive Development in Adolescence Formal operational stage – Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought) Hormones rise to high levels The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel” This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and preoccupation with body image and sex

47. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The increasing influence of peers Delinquency…although there are no experiments that are done regarding this topic, correlational studies suggest there is a link between a family being fatherless and serious issues developing in a small number of teenagers during this stage in life Social Identity in Adolescence Identity crisis

48. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Moral Dilemma Example In Europe a woman was near death from a very special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged ten times that much for a small dose. The sick woman’s husband went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together $1000, which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist his wife was dying, and asked to pay what he could and the rest later. The druggist said that he discovered it and was going to make money from it. So the man got desperate and broke into the store to steal the drug for his wife. Should he have done this?

49. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning I. Preconventional morality Stage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation…there is thinking only regarding consequences Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity…you scratch my back, I scratch yours

50. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 II. Conventional morality Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Stage 3: “Good child” orientation…how would everyone view the person? Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation…following rules and procedures because they maintain social order

51. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 III. Postconventional (principled) morality Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Stage 5: Social contract orientation…laws can be edited by a group of individuals, fairness should be emphasized Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation…broad thinking that touches on human conscience protecting worth and dignity

52. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Developmental Challenges Do Adults Face? Nature and nurture continue to produce changes throughout life, but in adulthood these changes include both growth and decline

53. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Developmental Challenges of Adulthood Love and work Intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus stagnation Generativity – A process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations

54. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Last Developmental Problems You Will Face Ego-identity – The ability to look back on life without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness According to Erikson, the final crisis involves ego-identity vs. despair

55. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Last Developmental Problems You Will Face Some of the most obvious changes that occur with age affect physical abilities such as Vision Hearing Thinking, learning, and problem solving Memory Sexual functioning Social interaction Emotions

56. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 9