1. 1 AP TEST REVIEW PART ONE Renaissance, Reformation, & Religious Wars

2. 2 RENAISSANCE POLITICS  ITALY: CITY STATE SYSTEM l Ruled by dictatorial princes l Constant warring between states--done by mercenaries called condottieri l States were: Milan (Sforza), Venice, Florence (Medici) (cultural center), Papal States (popes), & Naples l Machiavelli: wrote for Lorenzo de Medici (The Prince and Circle of Governments)

3. 3 National Monarchies  Created by the absorption of smaller feudal states  Had professional standing armies  By 1500, the four great national monarchies were England, France, Spain, and Portugal.

4. 4 100 Years’ War (1337 - 1453)  Caused by conflicts between England and France over Flanders and over French succession.  Began when English King Edward III claimed the French throne and the French nobility refused to recognize his claim.

5. 5 100 Years’ War, Continued  England invaded France and won several big battles. By 1360, a truce gave much of SW France to England.  By 1375, the French, under Charles V, reclaimed all but Calais and a bit of Burgundy.

6. 6 100 Years’ War, Continued  A big English victory at Agincourt in 1415 led Charles VI to sign the Treaty of Troyes (1420) which recognized English king Henry V as the rightful heir to the French throne. Henry died in 1422.  Joan of Arc’s victories eventually led to a French victory, and the war ended in 1453 with England getting only Calais.

7. 7 Results of the 100 Years War  French sovereignty  Strong French bureaucracy under Louis XI with high taxes, a strong army, and crown support of the merchant class.  A rise in the power of the English parliament and English disillusionment with their monarchy  The War of the Roses

8. 8 The War of the Roses (1455-1485)  Yorks (White) vs. Lancasters (Red)  Won by Henry VII  Created the Tudor monarchy which lasted until the death of Elizabeth in 1603.  Curtailment of the power of the nobility-- the establishment of the court of the star chamber.

9. 9 Spain  By the 8th Century, the Moors (Moslems) had conquered most of modern-day Spain.  By the 11th Century, Spain was falling apart with many independent regions.  By 1212, the Re-conquest (Reconquista) of Spain by the N. Christians of Aragon, Castile, and Leon left the Moors with only Grenada, in S. Spain. (El Cid, et. al)

10. 10 The Modern Spanish Nation  1469: Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile unites the regions into “Spain.”  1478: Inquisition began  1492: Columbus sent to the new world-- beginning of Spanish conquests.  1492: The Moors were driven out of Spain.

11. 11 Achievements of Ferdinand and Isabella  Limited the power of the Cortes (legislative Assembly) and weakened the power of the nobility by supporting the merchants.  Funded exploration, bringing great wealth from the New World  Monarchs appointed church officials and controlled religious policy.  Tried to establish religious unity in hopes of also fostering political unity.

12. 12 Spanish Inquisition  Designed to suppress the corruption of the Spanish clergy and root out “heretics.” Heretics were any non-Catholics, especially Moslems and Jews.  Led by Cisneros and Torquemada  Used any means necessary to subdue dissent  Spread the inquisition to conquered territories, such as the Spanish Netherlands

13. 13 Effects of the Inquisition  Expelled tens of thousands of Muslim and Jewish scholars and skilled traders and manufacturers.  Many of those expelled during the inquisition fled to Italy and were catalysts for developments in the Italian renaissance.  Their loss severely hurt Spanish development.

14. 14 Portugal  Independence achieved in 1355.  Active in early exploration, especially with the leadership of Prince Henry the Navigator.  By 1525, Portugal had vast holdings in the New World (Brazil, Angola, parts of India and Pakistan)

15. 15 Holy Roman Empire  The Hapsburg family 1st gained control in 1273 with Count Rudolph of Hapsburg.  After his death, several families vied for control of Central Europe.  1356: Golden Bull established the election of the Holy Roman Emperor by 7 electors.  By 1400, the Hapsburgs maintained continuous control of the Austrian part of the HRE until 1918.

16. 16 The HRE Falls Apart  During the Protestant Reformation, the HRE split into over 350 separate duchies.  The N. German princes were looking for an excuse to break away from the authority of the HR Emperor and the Pope, and used religion as a pretext for their developing autonomy.  The HRE’s disunity remained a problem until the 19th century.

17. 17 The Swiss Confederacy  The 13 cantons of Switzerland broke away from the HRE in a series of wars in the late 1300’s.  Their independence was not officially recognized until the Treaty of Westphalia (1648).  The cantons were split between Catholicism and Calvinism.

18. 18 The Baltic Confederation  The Baltic Confederation was originally a set of independent cities located on the Baltic Sea.  Eventually, about 80 of the small cities joined together to protect their commercial interests in the region.  The Hanseatic League was designed to allow these cities to control Baltic Sea trade.

19. 19 RENAISSANCE ECONOMICS  During the middle ages, manorialism developed due to the fact that money virtually disappeared from use in Europe and trade nearly came to a complete halt.  Renaissance economic developments were dominated by the rise of capitalism and the disintegration of manorialism (feudal bargaining).

20. 20 Renaissance Capitalism  As renaissance society became more settled, they began to produce surpluses and began to trade with other regions.  This growth of trade led to the development of towns and the rise of a merchant class.  Towns eventually became interdependent and needed trade to survive.  Money again was used and barter eventually came to a halt.

21. 21 Reasons for the Growth of Capitalism  Crusades: increased trade  Exploration: As developing states got $, they outfitted parties to explore and find routes to get to the riches in the east. This led to new riches, new trade routes, and new diseases, such as the plague.  Gold: precious metals expanded the European economy, fueled inflation, and put more currency in European economies.

22. 22 Another Reason: The Growth of Towns/Merchant Class  Led to the eventual decline of the power of the nobility and the shift away from land being the only source of wealth and power.  Led to the growth of trade  Led monarchs to develop stronger armies and navies to protect trade and commercial interests.

23. 23 More Reasons: Population Growth/Cottage Industries  Population growth created a pool of laborers and possible consumers. This growth was partially checked by the plague during some decades.  Cottage Industries began to develop as the agricultural revolution allowed some families to leave the farm and concentrate on skills such as weaving, furniture making, etc.

24. 24 Another Reason: New Techniques and Inventions  Inventions such as the printing press, banking systems, bills of exchange, and double entry bookkeeping made transactions easier and capital more available. This encouraged the growth of trade and commerce.  New inventions also encouraged the growth of cottage industries, but the majority of Europeans were still farmers until the late 18th century.

25. 25 Areas of Trade  Began in the Italian city states because they brought goods from the East through the Mediterranean and sent them overland to the rest of Europe.  Flanders: center of cloth and woolen trade  Hanseatic League dominated Baltic trade  England, Netherlands, & France dominated Atlantic trade by the 1500’s.

26. 26 Results of Economic Expansion  Decline of feudalism: money economy, cash payment of rents, consolidation of smaller farms  New Business Organizations: partnerships, chartered companies, and joint stock companies  Revival of Slavery: (there was limited opposition to this by some church leaders)  Growth of secularism and individualism

27. 27 RENAISSANCE CHARACTERISTICS (1350 - 1550)  Humanism emerges to challenge traditional church beliefs l interest in Greco-Roman civilization l emphasis placed on human abilities, not on religious dictates l tried to discover and copy forgotten classical manuscripts and tried to write in the classical style.

28. 28 More Characteristics  Growth of Secularism: Religious influence in science, economics, education, and daily life declined as the church became discredited due to the great schism, renaissance scientific discoveries, and the church’s refusal to accept change.

29. 29 More Characteristics  The renaissance emphasized different qualities than the medieval period: l Individualism: People saw themselves as individuals who could gain wealth and fame due to their own efforts. They began to see that they could think for themselves and didn’t need the church, the guild, or the nobility to tell them what to do. l Versatility: good at many things (well-rounded) l Thirst for learning l Use of the vernacular

30. 30 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE  The Italian Renaissance differed somewhat from the Renaissance in Northern Europe.  While the Italian renaissance focused on art, humanism, and education, the N. European renaissance focused on the reformation of the church and the birth of Protestantism.

31. 31 Why Italy?  Italy = center of early European commercial life. So, Italians were constantly introduced to new ideas from other civilizations (esp. from the Moslems and the Byzantines).  Secularism fostered by: Italy’s favorable econ. situation, & political cynicism fostered by the reality of the feuding city states, and writers such as Machiavelli.

32. 32 Why Italy?  Families made wealthy by trade and political power wanted to become the patrons of the arts. Many such as the Medici’s sponsored a lot of art, because they wanted to prove they were more powerful than the other wealthy families.  Contact with past Roman glory was more immediate, due to Italy’s location.

33. 33 Literature  Dante: Divine Comedy - 1st major work in the vernacular  Petrarch: known as the father of humanism; focused on the study of classical civilizations  Machiavelli: The Prince - all governments are flawed; “the ends justify the means;” beginning of “realpolitik.”

34. 34 More Literature  Boccaccio: Decameron: 100 tales of people who had taken refuge in a country house in Florence when the plague struck. Shocking for its day--some stories nearly obscene.  Castiglione: Book of the Courtier; This work provided directions on how a renaissance gentleman should live. Emphasized civic duty, versatility, and moral conduct.

35. 35 Art  Support from secular patrons led to the development of some non-religious work as well as the religious works sponsored by the church.  Renaissance art was more lifelike and realistic and used mathematical and scientific principles (proportion, vanishing point, etc.); chiaroscuro, sfumato

36. 36 Famous Renaissance Artists & Sculptors  Artists: Michelangelo (Sistine Chapel) and Leonardo da Vinci (Mona Lisa, the Last Supper) Rafael (School of Athens)  Sculptors: Donatello (David) & Michelangelo (David)

37. 37 The Scientific Revolution  The Scientific revolution began during the renaissance and challenged traditional scientific ideas that were held by the church, esp. those espoused by Aristotle.  Scientific discoveries were fueled by the new attitudes and confidence in human abilities and in turn encouraged secularism and the church largely refused to accept new findings.

38. 38 Science  Copernicus: heliocentric universe overturns the Ptolemaic (geocentric) system. (circular orbits)  Galileo: improved the telescope & supported Cop’s view. Experimented with the rate of speed of falling bodies (his findings were later used by Newton) and saw craters on the moon. Put under house arrest.

39. 39 Science  Leonardo da Vinci: An inventor whose ideas were beyond his time, he had notebooks full of drawings of plans for his inventions.  William Harvey: Discovered the circulation of blood in the human body.

40. 40 Education  Humanists favored a liberal arts education which was to include geometry, arithmetic, music, astronomy, literature, and history.  Humanists favored the use of the vernacular in education, so more merchants could be educated.

41. 41 THE NORTHERN EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE  As trade grew and the medieval social, economic, and political institutions began to break down, the Renaissance spread northward.  Often, the Northern European renaissance is also referred to as the Reformation.

42. 42 Northern Humanism  Similar to Italian humanism in that both rejected medieval scholarship and valued classical civilizations.  Different from Italian humanism because it placed more emphasis on purifying the Christian religion and encouraging a return to simple Christian piety.

43. 43 Actions of N. Humanists  Attacked the abuses of the Catholic church.  De-emphasized the observance of ritual as the core of religious life.  Worked to produce new translations of the Bible from the original Hebrew and Greek texts and revived the study of these languages.  Supported changes in University curriculum in Germany.

44. 44 Erasmus (1466-1536)  Nicknamed “Prince of the Humanists”  Dominated the intellectual thought of the N. renaissance  His book, In Praise of Folly, satirized ignorance, superstition, and many Church practices.  Criticized corruption of the church and called for men to lead simple Christian lives  Published a revised edition of the New Testament.

45. 45 N. Renaissance Art  Dominated by the “Dutch Masters,” such as Rembrandt, Breughel and Van Eyck.  Simple art which usually depicted everyday life or people in society. (Nightwatch, Arnolfini Wedding, The Wedding Banquet)  Protestant churches were very plain in contrast to the baroque styles encouraged by the Catholic church (Bernini, etc.).

46. 46 The Printing Press  The most important invention of the 15th century was the printing press, generally credited to Johann Gutenberg (c. 1450).  Printing by moveable type was cheap and greatly increased the circulation of books.  Printing also increased the need for education, fostered the use of propaganda, and allowed scholars from remote areas to share ideas and scientific findings.

47. 47 The Protestant Reformation  Interconnected to the Renaissance and spurred on by rise of the merchant/middle class, the growth of individualism, and more activity in Biblical scholarship from original texts.  Urged a return to a stronger Christian faith  Had distinct political overtones and reflected the growth of nationalism.

48. 48 Underlying Causes: Religious  Religious abuses were rampant and Catholic reforms were too little, too late. l Simony: sale of church offices l Immoral behavior of the clergy l sale of indulgences & dispensations l Index of Prohibited Books

49. 49 Underlying Causes: Social and Political  Humanism  Many political rulers saw the Church as a foreign (Italian) imposition on their growing political control and hated the fact that the church had its own courts, owned much land, and was exempt from local taxes.  N. German princes saw religious reform as an excuse to pursue nationalistic desires to break away from the HRE.

50. 50 Underlying Causes: Economic  Papal taxes were a hated burden on European nations and the rulers, the merchants, and the peasants all resented the payments.  Thought they were getting very little for their money.  Popes, Cardinals, and bishops lived lavishly at the expense of other Europeans.

51. 51 Martin Luther & Lutheranism  1517: Luther, a monk, posted the 95 Theses on the door of the church in Wittenberg to protest the sale of indulgences and its abuse by John Tetzel. l The printing press soon spread his ideas all over Germany.  “Justification by faith alone”: salvation achieved by faith in God rather than by doing good works to “earn” one’s way to heaven or by the purchase of indulgences.

52. 52 Controversy and Support  Although Luther was quickly opposed by the pope and other church officials, he gained support from many German humanists and princes who resented the control of the church and the HR emperor.  Protected from Charles V by Frederick the Wise of Saxony

53. 53 More Controversy  Charles V ordered Luther to recant at the Diet of Worms. He refused and was again protected by N. German princes.  Luther refused to support the Peasant’s Uprising (1524-25) and alienated many peasants, calling for their destruction.  Eventually married and started the Lutheran Church

54. 54 Luther’s Ideas  Separation of church and state  Denied the Catholic Church hierarchy  Bible is the final authority in religious matters (not what church officials said)  Recognized only 2 sacraments: Baptism and Eucharist  Rejected Transubstantiation in favor or Consubstantiation.

55. 55 Religious Warfare  1530: council called at Augsburg by Charles V to reconcile Catholic and Lutheran differences. l The Augsburg confession was the Lutheran position, but it was rejected by the Catholics. l Protestants formed the Schmalkaldic League for protection.  1546: War broke out between N. Protestant states and the Catholic HRE.

56. 56 The Peace of Augsburg  After a series of stalemates, the Peace of Augsburg was signed in 1555. l “cius regio, eius religio” l provided religious freedom only to the princes: everyone else was forced to abide by the religion of the ruler. l only Lutheranism and Catholicism were considered to be legal religions l denied Calvinism  Lutheranism soon spread all over Sweden, Norway, Finland, and N. Germany.

57. 57 Zwingli (1484 - 1531)  Swiss Reformer from Zurich  “Justification by faith alone”  Bible is final authority, not the pope  differed from Luther by saying that the Eucharist was entirely symbolic.  War broke out between the 8 protestant cantons and the 5 catholic ones. They remained divided religiously, but made peace in 1531.

58. 58 John Calvin (1509 - 1564)  Frenchman who was forced into exile in Geneva when his protestant ideas came into conflict with the catholic monarchy in France.  Main ideas were found in his book: Institutes of the Christian Religion.  Founder of Calvinism, the basis of what is more commonly known as Puritanism.

59. 59 Calvinism  Bible is the final authority  Predestination: God has already decided who will be saved (“the elect”) and who will not be (“the damned”). l The elect will uphold God’s teachings and lead exemplary lives. Their good works are only an outward sign of their salvation. l People are saved by faith, not by good works.  Purely symbolic communion  Theocracy

60. 60 Calvinism, continued  Calvin’s ideas spread to other locations and became popular in Europe: l France: Huguenots l Scotland: John Knox - Presbyterian church l England: Puritanism l Holland: Dutch Reformed Church

61. 61 The English Reformation  English humanists and pre-reformers (such as Hus and Wycliffe) called for an end to the materialism of the church.  Many English nobles strongly resented papal dues and church controls.  England’s remote location gave it more independence in religious matters.

62. 62 Henry VIII & Reformation  Henry sends Cardinal Wolsey to get him an annulment from the pope. The pope refused l (Charles V’s troops had sacked Rome in 1527, and the pope was under the control of Charles).  Henry arrested Wolsey for treason and appointed Thomas Cranmer as the new Archbishop of Canterbury. l Cranmer annulled the marriage.

63. 63 Henry, Continued  1534: Act of Supremacy - king replaces the pope as head of the English church and monasteries dissolved.  Church lands were confiscated  Formal establishment of the Anglican Church (Church of England)  After having a variety of wives, Henry died.

64. 64 The Catholic Counter-Reformation  The Council of Trent (1545 - 1563): led by Charles V, this council 1st tried to achieve reconciliation with the Protestants and then tried to save the Catholic church from destruction.  Unsuccessful in stopping the reformation, but did encourage internal reform of the Catholic church.

65. 65 Decisions  Faith and good works were both necessary for salvation  Although the Bible was an essential authority, Church tradition and law was supreme in interpreting it.  Reconfirmed the 7 sacraments  Ended internal corruption  Ended the sale of indulgences

66. 66 Formation of the Jesuits  Formed in Spain by St. Ignatius Loyola, this religious order stressed absolute obedience to Catholic doctrine and beliefs, but combined these ideas with the need for humanist education. l Education for youth in schools/universities l moral influence of the church in rel. schools l missionary activity l winning political influence as advisors to princes

67. 67 The Invasions of Italy  The Italian city-states were attractive to invaders for several reasons: l They were wealthy territories which were a tempting target for stronger powers l They were quite small and were easy prey for larger powers.

68. 68 The Empire of Charles V (1519 - 1556)  Charles inherited a huge empire from his father and grandparents which included the HRE, Spain, the Low Countries, and the Italian States.  Conquered much of Italy by 1525  Charles allowed his troops to sack Rome in 1527.  1530: Charles made peace with the Pope and was given the title “King of Italy.”

69. 69 Weaknesses of Charles’ Empire  Geographically, his empire was so spread out it was difficult to control.  N. German princes were striving for some measure of autonomy and were using religion as a pretext for rebellion.  The reformation had already begun when he became emperor, and this created religious division and wars.

70. 70 The End of Charles’ Reign  1555: The Peace of Augsburg established some measure of religious freedom in the HRE (cuius regio, eius religio)  1556: Charles retired to a monastery  1556: Ferdinand I (his brother) got the HRE and Philip II (his son) got Spain, Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and the New World colonies.

71. 71 Spain Under Philip II (1556 - 1598)  Philip inherited a nation blessed with great wealth in the form of gold and silver from the New World. He squandered much of it by: l spending huge amounts of resources by fighting religious wars to try to halt the spread of the Reformation; l purchasing luxury items from other nations to keep the Spanish nobility happy.

72. 72 The Dutch Revolt  Under the leadership of William of Orange (William the Silent), the Calvinist Dutch provinces (the Netherlands) united with the Catholic Dutch provinces (Belgium) to assert their independence from Spanish control.  The Calvinist provinces resented the Inquisition and all of the provinces resented the payment of taxes to Spain.

73. 73 The Dutch, continued  Philip sent the Duke of Alva, whose actions included the sacking of Antwerp.  Following the sacking of Antwerp, the Catholic provinces left the Dutch alliance and joined with the Spanish. l The Catholic provinces eventually became Belgium, while the Calvinist ones became the Netherlands.

74. 74 The Spanish Armada (1588)  Great rivalry existed between Spain and England over control of the seas and control of new world wealth.  Relations between the two nations had not been very good for a long time.  Philip decided to attack England in an attempt to restore Catholicism to the nation in 1588.

75. 75 Reasons for the Attack  Philip had been married to Mary I (Eng). After her death, Philip made some overtures to Elizabeth I and she refused to marry him.  Wanted to restore Catholicism to England.  Angry that England had aided the Dutch in their fight against Spain.  Resented English power in the new world and resented the attacks of the English “sea dogs” on Spanish galleons.

76. 76 The Defeat of Spain  The English decisively defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, thus preventing any Spanish acquisition of England.  This defeat forever weakened Spain and led to its decline in the next century.

77. 77 The Dutch Republic  Secured de facto independence from Spain by the late 1500’s due to weakening of Spanish power. l This was made official in 1648.  Golden Age of the Dutch Republic: early 1600’s due to political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements.

78. 78 The Thirty Years’ War (1618 - 1648)  Forever weakened the HRE and paved the way for French continental supremacy.  Approx. 1/3 of the population died and approx. 1/2 of the wealth of the German states was depleted. l This decimation set the stage for the long-term fragmentation of central Europe.

79. 79 The Bohemian Phase (1618 - 1625)  Protestant, Frederick V of Bohemia demanded more autonomy for Bohemia from Ferdinand II (HRE)  Defenestration of Prague  Rebellion drove the Imperial forces from Bohemia  The Protestant forces were decisively defeated at the Battle of White Mountain and Frederick was deposed.

80. 80 The Danish Phase (1625 - 1629)  Danish King Christian IV stepped up to lead the Protestants who were nearly wiped out after phase I.  The protestant forces experienced more losses at the hands of Tilly and Wallenstein.  The Edict of Restitution forced protestants to restore to the Catholic church all lands that had been taken from it since 1552. This was a major defeat.

81. 81 The Swedish Phase (1630 - 1635)  Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus and his army landed in Germany, starting phase III of the war.  Cardinal Richelieu of Catholic France supported Gustavus and the Protestant forces in an attempt to control the power of the Hapsburgs.  Many early protestant victories, but Gustavus was killed in battle in 1632.  Ferdinand had Wallenstein assassinated in 1634.  Phase was a costly one for both sides.

82. 82 The French Phase (1635 - 1648)  Sweden was attacked by Denmark in 1635, because Denmark hoped to break the power of the Swedish empire.  France sent troops to help Sweden.  Cath. France + Prot. Sweden vs. Cath. HRE + Prot. Denmark + Cath. Spain  1645: Denmark surrendered  1648: Germans called for a truce.

83. 83 The Treaty of Westphalia (1648)  Renewed the Peace of Augsburg (cuius regio, eius religio).  Officially recognized Calvinism as a legal religion  nullified the Edict of Restitution (whoever owned the land in 1624 got it back)  Recognized the independence of Switzerland and the Netherlands

84. 84 Westphalia, continued  German princes given more sovereignty (they now had the right to raise armies and conclude foreign alliances)  All agreed to settle their religious disputes through negotiation, rather than edict or majority vote.  This treaty permanently weakened and fragmented the HRE.

85. 85 THE FRENCH CIVIL WARS  Although France had only a small minority of Huguenots (approx. 9% in 1560), they had far more power than their numbers, because most protestants were upper middle class persons or members of the nobility. l Many of these Huguenots became Calvinist as an excuse to take a stand against the power of the Valois family.

86. 86 Francis I and Henry II  Both of these kings were concerned about the growing Protestant minority and actively persecuted the Calvinists.  Unfortunately, Henry II died while his sons were quite young, leaving Catherine de Medici as the queen mother. Catherine had a difficult time dealing with the various political and religious factions in France and her religious policies were disastrous for the nation.

87. 87 Political and Religious Problems in France  Three political factions were competing to control France by 1560: l Bourbons (Protestants) l Guises (Catholics) l Chatellions (Protestants)  Religious war broke out in 1562. Catherine would switch sides, for a time supporting the Protestants, then the Catholics, etc.

88. 88 More Wars  Religious intolerance culminated in the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre in 1572 when Coligny (Prot. advisor) and several thousand Parisian Protestants were killed.  This again ignited more warfare and led France into the “War of the Three Henry’s.”

89. 89 The War of the Three Henry’s  In this war, England helped the Protestant forces, and Spain helped the Catholics.  King Henry III (Cath.) and Henry of Navarre (Prot.) vs. Henry Guise (Cath.)  Henry III was killed, and Henry of Navarre won a series of military victories which established him as King Henry IV and created a new ruling dynasty in France--the Bourbons.

90. 90 King Henry IV (1589 - 1610)  When he took over, France was in a state of religious and political disorder, and the central government was severely weakened.  Henry rebuilt a devastated France with the help of his advisor, the Duke of Sully.  1593: Henry became Catholic (“Paris is worth a mass”).

91. 91 Achievements of Henry IV  1598: Edict of Nantes – granted religious toleration to Protestants (1st legal recognition of Calvinism in any nation). l Catholicism was still the national religion (The religion of most Frenchmen) l Protestants could worship freely in Protestant cities and could again own property.

92. 92 More Achievements  Strengthened the power of the monarch by weakening the power of the nobility.  Restored the bankrupt government to solvency  Began an extensive program for economic improvements--repairing and constructing roads, bridges and harbors, reclaiming marsh lands, and fostering agriculture.