1. “Pictorial Perception and Culture” Deregowski (1972) Methodology: Review article Aim: to investigate the role of learning in pictorial perception. Aim: to investigate the possibility of a “lingua franca”, a universal language of pictures. There are many different types of evidence in this study.

2. 1. Anecdotal reports Laws (end 19 th century) Malawi. Dog/ox pictures Mrs Fraser (1920s) Africa Pictures in profile Projected elephant Evaluation: Unscientific Subjective Can’t be replicated Ethnocentric: colonial overtones, makes ‘the natives’ look simple.

3. 2. Hudson’s hunter picture Sample: South African Bantu people, both children and adults. “What is the man doing” “Which is nearer, the antelope or the elephant?” Answer would determine whether someone was classed as a 3D or 2D perceiver. Depth cues: overlapping, relative or familiar size, height in plane.

5. Results using Hudson’s picture “The difficulty (in perceiving depth) varied in extent but appeared to persist through most educational and social groups” Evaluation: Compare the above with Hudson’s original data “which show that the samples of schoolchildren that were tested showed much higher rates of three-dimensional perception than the adult samples.” (Banyard p. 318) Vague description of sample: “African tribal subjects” Where are the percentages? Ethnocentric depth cues: what about texture gradient and aerial perspective?

6. 3.Hudson’s construction task Sample: Primary school boys and unskilled workers in Zambia (classed as 2D/3D by Hudson’s picture test, most 2D) This task acted as a check on Hudson’s picture test. Sample asked to construct stick and clay models from a picture.

8. Results of construction task 2D perceivers generally tended to construct a flat model. 3D perceivers generally tended to construct a 3D model. Evaluation: Percentages? Analysis by children/adults?

9. 4.Trident test (Deregowski?) Sample: Zambian school children (classed as 2D/3D by Hudson’s construction task.) Ambiguous and control tridents were drawn by the sample. Participants were timed by how long a flap was held up while they were copying the tridents. Results: 2D perceivers spent roughly the same amount of time on both tridents. 3D perceivers spent more time drawing the ambiguous trident.

11. 5. Gregory’s optical apparatus Sample: Unskilled Zambian workers Gregory designed apparatus for studying perceived depth (using Hudson’s picture) It enables the subject to adjust a spot of light so that it appears to lie at the same depth as an object in the picture. Results: Africans unfamiliar with pictorial depth cues set the light at the same depth on all parts of the picture. Evaluation: Scientific evidence

13. 6. Hudson and split drawings Sample: African children and adults Results: All but one preferred the split drawing over the perspective drawing. Why? Sample: Unskilled Zambian workers Asked to draw a picture of a wire model: most drew a split drawing When asked about preference, most preferred a split drawing over a perspective one.

15. Reasons for preference for split drawings Split drawings originated from 3D ornamental sculptures which were ‘unfolded’ (Boas) Reflects the idea of a split personality, especially in masks ( Levi-Strauss) In all societies, children prefer split types of drawings. (Deregowski) Split drawings not intended to be realistic but artistic and symbolic. (Deregowski)

16. Evaluation of Deregowski’s comments on split drawings Suggestion that some societies are “child- like” in their preference: patronising? Ethnocentrism on the part of Deregowski: “the styles arrived at are not equally efficient in conveying the correct description of objects.”

17. Difficulties in carrying out cross- cultural studies Language/problems with translation if using an interpreter. Interpretation of behaviour/cultural bias People act differently when being observed (subject reactivity) Using appropriate materials Ethnocentric judgement of other cultures Informed consent Protection of participants Right to withdraw (balance of power)