1. How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions
Module 2
Research Strategies
How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions
-I-

2. Our intuition and common sense
Hindsight Bias
we tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it
the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
Overconfidence
we tend to think that we know more than we do
Perceiving order in random events
Our eagerness to make sense of the world
We overestimate our own intuition

3. Thinking Critically With Psychological Science
To believe with certainty, we must begin by doubting
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
examines assumptions
identifies hidden values
evaluates evidence
assesses conclusions

4. The Scientific Method The Process of Research Observing a phenomenon
Formulating an idea
Testing an idea
Generalizing or refining the idea

5. The Scientific Method Formulating an idea Testing an idea
Initial phase of research, in which observations, beliefs, information, and general knowledge lead to a new idea or a different way of thinking about some phenomenon
Testing an idea
Organizing countless observations into a theory
Formulating testable predictions: hypotheses
Testing the hypotheses
Using operational definitions of concepts
Generalizing or refining the idea

6. The Scientific Method Theory Hypothesis
an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
Theory explains the underlying reason of the observed phenomenon
Produce hypotheses
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.

7. The Scientific Method
Theory explains
the
underlying reason
WHY?

8. Testing hypotheses using operational definitions
a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables
Also enables other researchers to replicate
example-
intelligence may be operationally defined as the score obtained from the intelligence test measures
Psychological well-being can be operationally defined as high level of life satisfaction and low depression.
Academic success can be operationally defined as GPA.

9. The Scientific Method Replication
repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
usually with different participants in different situations
the research findings can be generalizable to other samples/situations.

10. Methods of psychology Description (to describe)
Correlation (to predict)
Experimentation (to understand)

11. Methods of psychology
To describe human and animal behavior and mental processes, psychologists conduct:
Case studies
Surveys
Observations (naturalistic / lab)

12. Description Case Study
observation technique in which on individual (or few incidences) are studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principals
Studies of brain damaged individuals
Piaget
Suggest hypotheses for further studies
Problems??
May be unrepresentative
cannot be generalizable

13. Description Survey Looks at many cases with less depth.
Ask people to report thier behaviors or opinions.
Market surveys
Koç University student satisfaction survey
Problems??

14. Who do we survey?
Usually question a representative, random sample of people seleced from a population.
Population
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

15. How do we ask questions?
If there is a serious fuel shortage this winter, do you think there should be a law requiring people to lower the heat in their homes, or do you oppose such a law?
Should be 39.4 %
Oppose 60.6 %
If there is a serious fuel shortage this winter, do you think there should be a law requiring people to lower the heat in their homes, or do you oppose such a law because it would be too difficult to enforce?
Should be 26.0 %
Oppose 74.0 %

16. Description Naturalistic Observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations (or in more controlled environments) without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Dating behaviors of Koç University students?
Problems?

17. Methods of psychology
2. To predict human and animal behavior and mental processes, psychologists conduct
- Correlational studies: the examination of the quantitative relationships between two or more variables
how does one behavior relate to the occurrence of another behavior?
if we know one behavior’s pattern can we then, in turn, predict the pattern of occurrence of another behavior?

18. Variable Defined
Any characteristic or attribute that varies in amount and kind
Gender
Success
Weight, Height
Self-esteem
Reaction time in a learning experiment
Intelligence
Achievement motivation
Any characteristic or attribute of persons, objects, or events that can take on different numerical values.
These different values are called attributes
So gender: variable
female: attribute
personality: variable
extravert: attribute

19. (positive or negative)
Correlation
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +.37
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)

21. Correlation does not imply causation
Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
could cause
(1)
Low self-esteem
Depression or
(2)
Depression
could cause
Low self-esteem or
Low self-esteem
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause
and
Depression