1. Chapter 13 The Endocrine System
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General Function
Integrate body systems (maintain homeostasis)
Glands = effectors
stimulated by the motor impulses from the autonomic nervous system
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3. Comparison: Nervous v. Endocrine
Nervous system
Neurons  neurotransmitters, neuromuscular or neuroglandular
Effectors = neurons, muscles, glands
Rapid responses
Endocrine system
Releases hormones interstitial fluid or blood  general circulation
Effectors: any type of body cell - widespread effects on metabolism
Slower, longer-lasting response
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4. Comparison of Nervous and Endocrine Systems
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5. Comparison: Endocrine v. Exocrine
Endocrine glands
Secretions interstitial fluid then  bloodstream
Stay in the body: endo-
Examples: all hormones (growth hormone, insulin, adrenalin, estrogen, testosterone)
Exocrine glands
Secrete substances - ducts
Ultimately exit the body (exo-)
Examples: mucus, saliva and other digestive secretions, sweat, tears
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7. Endocrine Cells that Make Hormones
Cells In Endocrine glands
Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal
Cells within organs - produce hormones but also have other functions
Hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, adipose tissue, and placenta
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8. Location of Endocrine Glands
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Hormone Action
Hormones are carried in blood stream
Target cells can be affected by hormones
1000’s of receptors specific for a particular hormone.
Response determined by responding cell:
Cell may have > 1 type of receptor, can respond to more than one hormone
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10. General Hormone Characteristics
Needed in very small amounts (potent)
Regulated by negative-feedback mechanisms
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Hormone Chemistry
Lipid-soluble (Steroid)
testosterone, estrogens
Passes easily through target membrane
Water-soluble (Non-steroid)
Amino acid derivatives (epinephrine, norepinephrine)
Peptides: antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin
Proteins: insulin and growth hormone
Requires a receptor on the target membrane
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12. Structural Formula of Hormones
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13. Lipid-Soluble (Steroid) Action
Hormone/blood stream 
Diffuses through interstitial fluid  through cell membrane
Binds to receptor inside cell and activate it
Alters gene expression
New mRNA  protein synthesis
New proteins alter cell activity
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14. Actions of Steroid Hormones
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15. Water-Soluble (Non-Steroid) Action
Hormone (first messenger) diffuses from blood and binds to receptor in plasma membrane
Either increasing or decreasing a second messenger
Cyclic AMP is a common one
Second messenger  activation of several proteins (enzymes)
Activated proteins produce physiological responses
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16. Actions of Non-Steroid Hormones
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17. Control of Hormonal Secretions
Release occurs in short bursts
Generally one or any combination of 3 types of control
Hormonal control
Example: ACTH from pituitary stimulates release of cortisol from adrenal cortex
Nervous control
Example: adrenal medulla release of epinephrine
Hormonal control by chemical changes in blood levels
Example: blood Ca2+ affects parathyroid hormone
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Endocrine Glands
Paracrine secretions
act locally
do not travel through blood
Autocrine secretions
affect only the secreting cell
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19. Major Endocrine Glands
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20. Hypothalamus and Pituitary
Serve as major link between nervous and endocrine systems
Hypothalamic cells make
Many releasing and inhibiting hormones
Two hormones (oxytocin and ADH) that are stored and released from the posterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary makes 7 hormones
Regulate growth, development, metabolism and homeostasis
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Pituitary
Located in depression in sphenoid bone just inferior to the brain
Pituitary is attached to hypothalamus by stalk (infundibulum)
Pituitary has 2 lobes:
Anterior (Adenohypophysis)
Posterior (neurohypophysis)
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22. Pituitary Gland Control
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23. Seven Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Human growth hormone (hGH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Prolactin
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
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24. 1. Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
hGH promotes synthesis of insulinlike growth factors (IGFs) = somatomedins
Secreted by liver, muscle, cartilage, bone cells
Regulation
By hypothalamic hormones
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
Growth hormone-inhibiting Hormone (GHIH )
By blood glucose levels
Low blood glucose levels  release of GHRH
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25. 1. Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
Actions of hGH
Stimulates protein synthesis
Maintains muscle and bone mass
Promotes healing of injuries, tissue repair
Makes “fuel” (ATP) available for growth
Causes fat breakdown and release of fatty acids into blood
Breaks down liver glycogen  releases glucose into blood
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26. Growth Hormone Imbalances
Pituitary Dwarfism – hyposecretion of GH during growth years
Slow bone growth
Treatment = oral GH therapy
Gigantism – hypersecretion of GH during growth years
Abnormal increase in the length of long bones
Acromegaly = hypersecretion of GH during adulthood
Bones of hands, feet, cheeks, and jaw thicken
Soft tissues also grow
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27. 2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Stimulates the formation and secretion of thyroid hormones (T3, T4) by thyroid gland
Regulation (negative feedback)
Low blood levels of T3, T4 
Hypothalamus  Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) 
TRH stimulates release of TSH
TSH stimulates thyroid production of T3, T4
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3, 4. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
In females
FSH starts follicle development 
Starts egg production
Starts estrogen production from follicle cells
LH stimulates formation of corpus luteum
Completion of egg and its ovulation
Secretion of progesterone + estrogen
In males
FSH  sperm production in testes
LH  release of testosterone from testes
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3, 4. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Regulation (negative feedback)
Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from hypothalamus  release of FSH or LH from anterior pituitary
High levels of Estrogen, Progesterone, and Testosterone suppress production of GnRH
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5. Prolactin (PRL)
Initiates and maintains milk production
Ejection of milk depends on oxytocin
Regulation
Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) suppresses prolactin release
High levels of estrogens  Prolactin Releasing Hormone (PRH)  prolactin release
Unknown function in males
Hypersecretion  erectile dysfunction
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31. 6. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Controls production and secretion of glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex
Regulation (negative feedback)
Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) from hypothalamus stimulates secretion of ACTH
Stress-related stimuli can also stimulate ACTH release
Glucocorticoids inhibit CRH and ACTH release
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32. 7. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
Small amounts in bloodstream
Excess amounts causes skin darkening
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Hypothalmic Hormones
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Posterior Pituitary
Hormones from hypothalamus
Create nerve impulses  release of hormones from posterior pituitary
Two hormones released
Oxytocin causes
“letdown” of milk from glands to ducts
Smooth muscle contraction of uterus
Some sexual pleasure during sexual activity
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Posterior Pituitary
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) = vasopressin
Causes kidneys to retain more water
Causes vasoconstriction  increases blood pressure
Dehydration, pain, stress  increase ADH secretion
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Posterior Pituitary
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37. Pituitary Gland Blood Supply
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Thyroid Gland
Location: inferior to larynx: two lobes
Structure and function
Follicular cells produce hormones and store them in follicles
Thyroxin (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Parafollicular cells (C-cells) produce
Calcitonin (CT)
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Thyroid Gland
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Thyroid Gland
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41. Thyroid Hormones: Actions
T4 and T3 increase basal metabolic rate, protein synthesis, and growth
Blood level controlled by TRH and TSH
Increase in the body’s demand for ATP can also raise blood levels
Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts
Effects:
Strengthens bones
Decreases blood Ca2+
Control based on Ca2+ blood levels
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42. Thyroid Gland Disorders
General Hyperthyroidism
high metabolic rate
hyperactivity
weight loss
protruding eyes
Cretinism
hypothyroidism in infants
leads to small stature and mental retardation
Prevention with new born testing
Treatment – oral thyroid therapy
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43. Thyroid Gland Disorders
Myxedema
Adult hypothyroidism
Low metabolic rate
Sluggishness
Weight gain, muscle weakness
Oral thyroid hormones reduce symptoms
Simple Goiter
Deficiency of iodine
Leads to deficiency of thyroid hormones
Gland enlarges but still functions normally
Grave’s disease - autoimmune
Overstimulation of gland by antibodies
Hyperthyroidism
Enlarged thyroid
Bulging of the eyes
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Parathyroid Glands
Small round masses posterior of thyroid
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Increases blood Ca2+ in 3 ways
Increases number and activity of osteoclasts
Slows loss of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in urine
Promotes production of calcitriol (vitamin D)  increases rate of Ca2+, Mg2+ and HPO42- absorption in GI tract  increase blood Ca2+
Decreases blood HPO42- by increasing loss of HPO42- in urine
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Parathyroid Glands
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Parathyroid Glands
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Calcium Regulation 1
High level of Ca2+ in blood
stimulates thyroid gland
parafollicular cells to
release more CT.
Low level of Ca2+ in blood
stimulates parathyroid
gland chief cells to release
more PTH.
CALCITONIN inhibits
osteoclasts, thus decreasing
blood Ca2+ level.
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)
promotes release of Ca2+ from
bone extracellular matrix into
blood and slows loss of Ca2+
in urine, thus increasing blood
Ca2+ level. 3 4 2 1
High level of Ca2+ in blood
stimulates thyroid gland
parafollicular cells to
release more CT.
Low level of Ca2+ in blood
stimulates parathyroid
gland chief cells to release
more PTH.
CALCITONIN inhibits
osteoclasts, thus decreasing
blood Ca2+ level. 3 2 1
High level of Ca2+ in blood
stimulates thyroid gland
parafollicular cells to
release more CT. 1
CALCITRIOL stimulates
increased absorption of
Ca2+ from foods, which
increases blood Ca2+ level.
PTH also stimulates
the kidneys to release
CALCITRIOL.
High level of Ca2+ in blood
stimulates thyroid gland
parafollicular cells to
release more CT.
Low level of Ca2+ in blood
stimulates parathyroid
gland chief cells to release
more PTH.
CALCITONIN inhibits
osteoclasts, thus decreasing
blood Ca2+ level.
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)
promotes release of Ca2+ from
bone extracellular matrix into
blood and slows loss of Ca2+
in urine, thus increasing blood
Ca2+ level. 3 4 2 5 6 1
PTH also stimulates
the kidneys to release
CALCITRIOL.
High level of Ca2+ in blood
stimulates thyroid gland
parafollicular cells to
release more CT.
Low level of Ca2+ in blood
stimulates parathyroid
gland chief cells to release
more PTH.
CALCITONIN inhibits
osteoclasts, thus decreasing
blood Ca2+ level.
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)
promotes release of Ca2+ from
bone extracellular matrix into
blood and slows loss of Ca2+
in urine, thus increasing blood
Ca2+ level. 3 4 2 5 1
High level of Ca2+ in blood
stimulates thyroid gland
parafollicular cells to
release more CT.
CALCITONIN inhibits
osteoclasts, thus decreasing
blood Ca2+ level. 2
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48. Parathyroid Gland Disorders
Hyperparathyroidism
Caused by tumor
Fatigue
Muscular weakness
Altered mental functions
Bone weakening
Hypoparathyroidism
Caused by injury or removal of gland
Muscle cramps
Seizures
Low blood calcium levels
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Adrenal Glands
Location: on top of kidneys
Two separate gland structures
Adrenal cortex: 3 zones make steroids
Outer zone  mineralocorticoids
Middle zone  glucocorticoids
Inner Zone  androgens
Adrenal medulla: produces epinephrine (adrenalin) and norepinephrine
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Adrenal Glands
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Mineralocorticoids
Aldosterone - major form
Action
Stimulates Na+ and H20 reabsorption from urine
Stimulates excretion of K+ into urine
Part of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway
Decreased BP  release of renin from kidney
Renin causes angiotensinogen  angiotensin I
In lungs angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) causes angiotensin I  angiotensin II
Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone release
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52. Adrenal Cortex Hormones
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Mineralocorticoids
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54. Glucocorticoid (Cortisol) Actions
Increases rate of protein breakdown
Stimulates liver formation of glucose
Breaks down triglycerides in adipose
Anti-inflammatory effects
Inhibit white blood cells
Depresses immune system
Regulated by negative feedback: CRH and ACTH
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55. Adrenal Cortex Hormones
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Androgens
Small amount in both females and males
Puberty
Stimulate axillary and pubic hair growth
Contribute to adolescent growth spurt
In females
Contribute to libido
Are converted to estrogens by other body tissues
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Adrenal Medulla
Inner portion of adrenal glands
Part of sympathetic nervous system
Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine
Increases heart rate and blood pressure
Increases blood glucose, dilates airways
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Pancreas
Flattened organ in curve of duodenum
Mostly exocrine - secretes digestive enzymes
Endocrine - Islets of Langerhans
Alpha cells  glucagon
Beta cells  insulin
Delta cells  somatostatin
Requlate carbohydrates
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Pancreas
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Pancreas
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Pancreas
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Pancreas
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63. Actions of Insulin and Glucagon
Low blood glucose  glucagon release
stimulates liver to release glucose
High glucose levels  insulin release
increases glucose  into skeletal muscle and adipose cells
promotes amino acid uptake, protein synthesis, and lipid storage
ANS also modulates hormone release
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Insulin acts on various
body cells to:
• accelerate facilitated
diffusion of glucose
into cells
• speed conversion of
glucose into glycogen
(glycogenesis)
• increase uptake of
amino acids and increase
protein synthesis
• speed synthesis of fatty
acids (lipogenesis)
• slow glycogenolysis
• slow gluconeogenesis
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
High blood glucose
(hyperglycemia)
stimulates beta cells
to secrete
INSULIN
GLUCAGON 1 5 2 3 4 6
Insulin acts on various
body cells to:
• accelerate facilitated
diffusion of glucose
into cells
• speed conversion of
glucose into glycogen
(glycogenesis)
• increase uptake of
amino acids and increase
protein synthesis
• speed synthesis of fatty
acids (lipogenesis)
• slow glycogenolysis
• slow gluconeogenesis
Blood glucose level falls
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
High blood glucose
(hyperglycemia)
stimulates beta cells
to secrete
INSULIN
GLUCAGON 1 5 2 3 4 6 7
Insulin acts on various
body cells to:
• accelerate facilitated
diffusion of glucose
into cells
• speed conversion of
glucose into glycogen
(glycogenesis)
• increase uptake of
amino acids and increase
protein synthesis
• speed synthesis of fatty
acids (lipogenesis)
• slow glycogenolysis
• slow gluconeogenesis
If blood glucose continues
to fall, hypoglycemia
inhibits release of
insulin
Blood glucose level falls
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
High blood glucose
(hyperglycemia)
stimulates beta cells
to secrete
INSULIN
GLUCAGON 1 5 2 3 4 6 7 8
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
High blood glucose
(hyperglycemia)
stimulates beta cells
to secrete
GLUCAGON 1 5 2 3 4
INSULIN
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
GLUCAGON 1 2 3 4
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete 1
GLUCAGON
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
GLUCAGON 1 2
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
GLUCAGON 1 2 3
Glucose/
Insulin
Regulation
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65. Homeostatic Imbalances
Diabetes Mellitus - Type I
absolute insulin deficiency
Patients < 20 years
Autoimmune disorder: Beta cells destroyed
Hyperglycemia results
Cells can’t use glucose
fat is broken down
releases ketone bodies (ketoacidosis)
lowers blood pH
causing death
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Treatments
Artificial pancreas - releases insulin  falling glucose levels
Transplant of pancreas or Beta cells
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Type II
Patients > 40 years
Overweight, hypertension
Problem (usually) receptors on target cells
Controlled
diet, exercise, and weight loss
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68. Gonads: Ovaries and Testes
Produce gametes: sperm and oocytes
Produce hormones
Testosterone in males
Estrogen and progesterone in females
Inhibin that inhibits FSH release
Relaxin during pregnancy: facilitates birth
Regulated by
GnRH from hypothalamus
FSH + LH from anterior pituitary
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Pineal Gland
Small gland attached to roof of third ventricle (brain)
Produces melatonin
Sets body’s biological clock
More released in darkness, less in sunlight
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Other Hormones
Thymus: thymosin
GI tract
Gastrin
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)
Secretin
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Kidney: erythropoietin (EPO)
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Other Hormones
Heart: atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Adipose tissue: leptin
Placenta: human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
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Other Hormones
Prostaglandins (PG) and leukotrienes (LT)
Derived from fatty acids
Act locally in most tissues and released from most body cells
LTs stimulate white blood cells and mediate inflammation
PGs affect many visceral functions, modulate inflammation, promote fever, and intensify pain
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Stress
Physical stress
Injury – accidental
Exercise – purposeful
Psychological stress
Emotions – automatic
Overloaded – can be self induced
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Responses to Stress
General Stress Syndrome
hypothalamic response to stress
Activates adrenal medulla (sympathetic NS) – short term
Activates adrenal cortex (cortisol) - long term
Basic goal is to increase available nutrients to fight off stress
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Responses to Stress
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Aging
Some decrease in function with aging
endocrine glands shrink
Loss of negative feedback sensitivity
GH levels even out, muscular strength decreases
changes in melatonin secretion affect the body clock
PTH levels rise  loss of bone mass
Slower release of insulin
Thymus declines after puberty
Ovarian response to gonadotropins stops
Slow decline in testosterone production
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