1. 1 DNT 200 NUTRITION FOR HEALTH SCIENCES WATER & MINERALS

2. 2 The cows are our friends, they give food, they give strength, they likewise give a good complexion and happiness Gautama Buddha, 500 B.C.

3. 3 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids

4. 4 WATER & MINERALS Water Physiological Functions –Is an essential nutrient (must be consumed from exogenous sources to satisfy metabolic demand) –Constitutes about 60% of adult body weight –Catalyst for a majority of metabolic reactions including those involves with Nutrient digestion Absorption Transport Metabolism

5. 5 WATER & MINERALS Water Physiological Functions (con’t) –Required for facilitation of excretion of metabolic waste by the kidneys –Inadequate intake compromises cell functioning by contributing to Electrolyte imbalances Concentration of plasma volume Inability to regulate body temperature

6. 6 WATER & MINERALS Water Groups vulnerable to dehydration -- are either not able to adequately express thirst sensations or to detect them –Infants –Elderly adults –Athletes With extreme heat and excessive perspiration, thirst may lag behind actual water requirements

7. 7 WATER & MINERALS Water Overhydration Can result in hyponatremia (because of too much water) –Less common but more dangerous than dehydration –Sports drinks -- contain some sodium but not enough to make a difference –Women at greater risk because they are smaller –International Marathon Medical Directors Association advises drinking no more than about 12 - 25 oz fluid per hour

8. 8 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Water Intake Sources –Water you drink –Nearly all foods contain water Normal intake -- 2.5 liters per day PERCENTAGE OF WATER IN SELECTED FOODS 100% -- Water; diet sodas 90-99% -- Nonfat milk, strawberries, watermelon, lettuce, cabbage, celery, spinach, broccoli 80-89% -- Fruit juice, yogurt, apples, grapes, oranges, carrots 70-79% -- Shrimp, bananas, corn, potatoes, avocados, cottage cheese, ricotta cheese 60-69% -- Pasta, legumes, salmon, ice cream, chicken breast 50-59% -- Ground beef, hot dogs, feta cheese 40-49% -- Pizza 30-39% -- Cheddar cheese, bagels, bread 20-29% -- Pepperoni sausage, cake, biscuits 10-19% -- Butter, margarine, raisins 1-9% -- Crackers, cereals, pretzels, taco shells, peanut butter, nuts 0% -- Oils

9. 9 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Percent of total water intake from beverages (including drinking water) and food –Males and females 19 and older 81% from beverages 19% from foods –Pregnant females 77% from beverages 22% from foods –Lactating females 82% from beverages 18% from foods NHANES III 1988-1994

10. 10 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Water DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE AI –Males 19 and over -- 0.7 L/day from food and 3.0 L/day from beverages –Females 19 and over -- 0.5 L/day from food and 2.2 L/day from beverages –Pregnant women -- 0.7 L/day from food and 2.3 L/day from beverages –Lactating women -- 0.7 L/day from food and 3.1 L/day from beverages 2004 data

11. 11 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Water Output Body must excrete a certain amount of water per day as urine (approx. 500ml) –Carries away waste products of metabolism –Above this amount, the water you excrete adjusts to balance your intake –If you drink more than you need, the urine becomes more dilute

12. 12 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Fluid & Electrolyte Balance 2/3 fluid found inside the cells 1/3 fluid found outside the cells Major minerals control the movement of water -- they occur in salts that dissolve in body fluids

13. 13 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Fluid & Electrolyte Balance Ions –When mineral salts are dissolved in water (body fluids) they separate (dissociate) into ions (cations and anions) that carry electricity –Cations carry positive charges; anions carry negative charges Electrolytes are fluids that have ions dissolved in them such that they have electrical properties

14. 14 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Fluid & Electrolyte Balance Water’s Attraction To Electrolytes Electrolyte solutions –They must have a balanced charge –Can conduct electricity Cells sort out the mineral ions –Outside the cells -- notably sodium and chloride ions –Inside the cells -- potassium, magnesium, phosphate, and sulfate ions When electrolytes move across membranes water follows -- water follows salt

15. 15 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Fluid & Electrolyte Balance Water’s Attraction To Electrolytes Water moves to concentrated solutions Osmosis -- the movement of water across a membrane to area with more solutes -- solutes refer to the number of molecules in a given volume of solution Examples of osmosis –Raisins plump in water –Vegetables sweat when salted

16. 16 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Fluid & Electrolyte Balance Regulation The amount of various salts in body must remain nearly constant If salts are lost, they must be replaced from external sources -- foods and beverages Proteins regulate the flow of fluids and ions –Cell membrane contains transport proteins that regulate the passage of positive ions and other substances from one side of the membrane to the other –Negative ions follow positive ions –Water flows toward the more concentrated solution

17. 17 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Fluid & Electrolyte Balance

18. 18 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Fluid & Electrolyte Balance

19. 19 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Dehydration Signs to watch for (adults) –Consumption less than 6 cups per day –Dry mouth, cracked lips, sunken eyes, or dark urine –Needs help drinking –Has trouble swallowing –Vomiting, diarrhea, or fever –Confused or tired –Environmental factors (seasonal temperatures and room temperatures)

20. 20 WATER & MINERALS Water and Body Fluids Dehydration What to do –Report observations and warning signs –Check swallowing –Encourage drink Including other than at meal time Caffeinated coffee and tea to be used with caution due to natural diuretic effect –Record intake and output –Offer ice chips –Drink with client –Place light pitcher and cup near –Offer assistance

21. 21 WATER & MINERALS Minerals

22. 22 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Overview Are inorganic elements –Always retain their chemical identity –Once they enter the body, they remain there until excreted Some are required in small amounts and therefore are essential nutrients –Bioavailability varies -- some foods contain binders that combine chemically with minerals preventing absorption –Have varied roles Major minerals are present in the largest amounts (larger than 5 grams) Trace minerals -- found in amounts less than 5 grams

23. 23 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Overview

24. 24 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE AI –Adults 19-50 -- 1000 mg NOTE: Values do not change with pregnancy and lactation –Adults over 50 -- 1200 mg UL -- 2500 mg 1998 data

25. 25 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Is the most abundant mineral in the body Chief functions –With phosphorus, is the chief mineral of the bones and teeth 99% stored in bones Bones act as a bank for calcium Formulation and dissolution takes place every minute, day and night Blood calcium changes in response to changed regulatory control, not diet -- bones are depleted by calcium deficiency

26. 26 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Chief functions (continued) Calcium balance –Regulated by Vitamin D, calcitonin (from the thyroid gland), and parathormone (from the parathyroid glands)

27. 27 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Chief functions (continued) Calcium balance –If blood calcium is too high »Rising blood calcium signals the thyroid gland to secrete calcitonin, which --Limits calcium absorption in the intestines --Inhibits the activation of Vitamin D --Stimulates calcium excretion in the kidneys --Inhibits osteoclast cells from breaking down bone, preventing a rise in blood calcium »All of these actions lower blood calcium, which inhibits calcitonin secretion

28. 28 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Chief functions (continued) If blood calcium is too low »Falling blood calcium signals the parathyroid glands to secrete parathormone »Vitamin D enhances absorption in the intestines »Parathormone stimulates the activation of Vitamin D »Vitamin D and parathormone stimulate osteoclast cells to break down bone, releasing calcium into the blood »All of these actions raise blood calcium, which inhibits parathormone secretion

29. 29 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Chief functions (continued) –Aids in normal muscle contractions and relaxations -- maintains normal heart rhythm Above normal blood levels causes calcium rigor -- muscles contract resulting in hardness and stiffness Below normal levels cause calcium tetany -- intermittent spasm of the extremities Not reflective of lack of dietary calcium –Are caused by lack of Vitamin D or –Abnormal secretion of the regulatory hormones

30. 30 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Chief functions (continued) –Blood pressure Adequate calcium intake can lower blood pressure, superceding the effects of a high sodium diet –Assists in nerve functioning –Is involved in blood clotting –Aids in immune defenses

31. 31 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Deficiency symptoms –Stunted growth in children –Osteoporosis (adult bone loss) Is a reduced density of the bones Both genetic and environmental factors can contribute Is 8 times more prevalent in women than men –Women tend to consume less calcium than men –Women’s bone mass is lower than men (because of smaller body size) –Bone loss begins earlier in women than men accelerates after menopause Other nutrients also are involved in preventing osteoporosis –Magnesium –Fluoride –Vitamin A

32. 32 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Toxicity symptoms –Constipation –Increased risk of urinary stone formation and kidney dysfunction –Interference with absorption of other minerals

33. 33 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Absorption –Adults absorb about 30% of calcium consumed –Factors that enhance absorption Stomach acid -- helps to keep it soluble Vitamin D -- helps the absorptive cells of the intestine make the necessary calcium- binding protein Lactose Phosphorus when consumed in an equal amount as calcium Growth hormones

34. 34 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Absorption –Factors that inhibit absorption Lack of stomach acid Vitamin D deficiency High phosphorus intake High fiber diet Phytates, a non-nutrient component of plant seeds (in seeds, nuts, and grains) Oxalates, a binder (in beets, rhubarb, and spinach )

35. 35 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Calcium Significant Sources Milk and milk products Small Fish (with bones) Tofu (bean curd) Greens (broccoli, chard) Legumes Broccoli: 36mg per 1/2 cup cooked Sardines: 324mg per 3 oz Milk: 316mg per cup Pork and beans: 77mg per 1/2 cup Cheddar Cheese: 305mg per 1-1/2 oz Almonds: 80mg per 2 Tbsp.

36. 36 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Phosphorus DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE RDA –Adults over 19 -- 700 mg UL –3000-4000 mg, depending on age, sex, pregnancy, or lactation status 1998 data

37. 37 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Phosphorus After Calcium, is the second-most abundant mineral in the body Approximately 85% is found as hydroxyapatite, the major calcium- containing crystal of the bones and teeth

38. 38 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Phosphorus Chief functions –A chief mineral of the bones and teeth –Phosphates occur in all cells as part of a major buffer system (phosphoric acid and its salts) –Occurs as part of genetic material DNA and RNA present in every cell Therefore necessary for growth

39. 39 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Phosphorus Chief functions (continued) –Assists in energy transfers during cellular metabolism Many enzymes and the B-vitamins become active only when a phosphate group is attached ATP, the energy carrier of the cells, uses three phosphate groups to do its work –Part of phospholipids Helps transport other lipids in the blood Major structural components of cell membranes

40. 40 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Phosphorus Deficiency symptoms –Weakness, bone pain Dietary deficiency rarely occurs Some drugs can bind with phosphorus making it unavailable resulting in bone loss that is characterized by weakness and pain –Diets that provide enough protein and calcium will provide enough phosphorus Toxicity symptoms –Excess phosphorus may draw calcium out of the body in being excreted

41. 41 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Phosphorus Significant sources –All animal tissues -- best sources –Phosphorus from additives in processed foods can add significantly to people’s intakes –Vegetables and fruits are fair to poor sources

42. 42 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Magnesium DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE RDA –Males 19-30 -- 400 mg –Males 31 and over -- 420 mg –Females 19-30 -- 310 mg –Females 31 and over -- 320 mg UL – 350 mg, (as a pharmacological agent only -- not from food and water) 1998 data

43. 43 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Magnesium Bone magnesium is a “reservoir” to make sure some will be on hand for vital reactions, regardless of recent dietary intake

44. 44 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Magnesium Chief functions –Involved in bone mineralization -- over half of the body’s magnesium is in the bones –Building of protein -- acts in all of the cells of the soft tissue –Enzyme action Is a catalyst in the reaction that adds the last phosphate to ATP –Normal muscle contraction Dynamic interaction with calcium (calcium promotes, magnesium inhibits) –Nerve impulse transmission –Maintenance of teeth -- holds calcium in the tooth enamel –Supports functioning of the immune system

45. 45 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Magnesium Deficiency symptoms –Rarely occur without disease -- may develop in Alcohol abuse Protein malnutrition Kidney or endocrine disorders Prolonged vomiting or diarrhea –Characterized by Weakness Confusion If extreme –Convulsions –Bizarre muscle movements –Hallucinations –Difficulty swallowing –Growth failure in children

46. 46 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Magnesium Toxicity symptoms -- unknown

47. 47 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Magnesium Significant Sources Nuts Legumes Whole Grains Dark Green Vegetables Seafood Chocolate Cocoa Oysters: 93mg per 3 oz Dried Figs: 33mg per 1/4 cup Black Eyed Peas: 45mg per 1/2 cup cooked Spinach: 78mg per 1/2 cup cooked Baked Potato: 55mg per whole small potato Sunflower Seeds(shelled): 21mg per 2 tbs.

48. 48 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sodium DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE AI –Men and women 19 - 50 -- 1500 mg daily –Men and women 51 - 70 -- 1300 mg daily –Men and women 70 and older -- 1200 mg daily UL –Men and women 19 and over 2,300 mg daily Typical consumption averages 3,300 mg 2004 data

49. 49 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sodium Chief functions –Is the principle electrolyte in the extracellular fluid and the primary regulator of extracellular fluid volume When blood sodium rises (as when a person eats salted foods) thirst ensures that the person will drink until the appropriate sodium to water ratio is restored –With chloride and potassium, maintains the cells normal fluid balance –Maintains acid-base balance Kidneys excrete hydrogen ions in exchange for sodium ions –Nerve impulse transmission –Muscle contraction

50. 50 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sodium Deficiency –Causes of depletion Overly strict use of low sodium diets Vomiting Diarrhea Heavy sweating –Symptoms Muscle cramps Mental apathy Loss of appetite –When blood sodium drops, both sodium and water must be replaced to restore balance Salt losses can be safely replaced with “regular foods” Salt tablets are not recommended -- too much salt, especially with too little water can incur dehydration

51. 51 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sodium Toxicity –Prolonged excessive sodium intake, especially when the sodium is derived from salt, may be related to the development of hypertension in sensitive people –Immediate symptoms Edema Hypertension Typically not a problem as long as water needs are met

52. 52 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sodium

53. 53 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sodium Sodium in foods –Table salt Is about 40% sodium 1 tsp. of table salt contains about 2000 mg of sodium 15% of the sodium in the U.S. diet comes from salt added during cooking –Processed foods have the highest sodium contents 3/4 of the sodium in the U.S. diet comes from salt added to foods during processing and manufacturing –Do not always taste salty -- may contain sodium without its chloride

54. 54 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals SODIUM IN SELECTED FOODS 1 portion fruit -- 0 mg 1 cup milk -- 100 mg 3/4 cup corn flakes -- 172 mg 1/2 cup instant vanilla pudding -- 372 mg 1 cup cottage cheese -- 700 mg Big Mac -- 890 mg 1 Tbsp. Soy sauce -- 1,027 mg 3 oz sausage -- 1,100 mg 1 large pickle -- 1,450 mg KFC 2-piece combo -- 1,801 mg

55. 55 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Chloride DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE AI –Adults 19-50 -- 2.3 grams per day UL –Adults 19 and over -- 3.5 grams per day Typical consumption averages 3,300 mg daily 2004 data

56. 56 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Chloride Chief functions –Fluid and electrolyte balance Major anion of the extracellular fluids (occurs mostly in association with sodium) Associates with potassium inside the cells -- Can move freely across the cell membranes –Part of the hydrochloric acid found in the stomach -- is necessary for proper digestion

57. 57 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Chloride Deficiency –Does not occur under normal circumstances –Sodium depleting conditions such as heavy sweating, or chronic diarrhea and vomiting also deplete chloride –Symptoms Growth failure in children Muscle cramps Mental apathy Loss of appetite Death (uncommon) Toxicity –Normally harmless –Only known cause is dehydration due to water deficiency –Symptomized by vomiting

58. 58 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Chloride Chloride in foods –Table salt -- is about 60% chloride –Large amounts in processed foods –Moderate quantities in whole unprocessed foods

59. 59 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Potassium DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE AI –Adults 18 and over --4.7 g/day 2004 data

60. 60 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Potassium Chief functions –Is the principle electrolyte in the intracellular fluid –With chloride and sodium, maintains the cells normal fluid balance –Supports cell integrity –Nerve impulse transmission –Muscle contraction -- is critical to maintaining the heartbeat

61. 61 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Potassium Deficiency –Dietary deficiency unlikely but diets low in fresh fruits and vegetables make it possible –Accompanies dehydration –Regular use of certain drugs Potassium depleting diuretics Steroids Strong laxatives –Characterized by Muscular weakness Paralysis Confusion Death

62. 62 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Potassium Toxicity –Does not result from overeating foods high in potassium Given more potassium than the body needs, the kidneys accelerate their excretion Vomiting reflex is triggered if ingestion exceeds the kidneys’ limit –Can result from overuse of potassium salt (salt substitutes) –Characterized by Muscular weakness Vomiting –If given into a vein, can stop the heart

63. 63 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Potassium Potassium in foods –All whole foods are good sources Meats Milk Fruits Vegetables Grains Legumes

64. 64 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sulfur DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE Sulfur -- None Sulfate -- Requirements are met when intakes include recommended levels of sulfur amino acids –Neither an EAR nor AI are established –Insufficient information is available to establish an UL 2004 data

65. 65 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sulfur Body does not use sulfur by itself as a nutrient but it occurs in essential nutrients that the body does use

66. 66 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sulfur Sulfate –Inorganic sulfate (SO 4 2- ) required for the synthesis of 3’-phosphoadenosine-5’-phosphosulfate (PAPS)(a sulfate carrier used to transfer sulfate groups to sulfatides, a component of the myelin sheath in the brain, and in the kidney, and retina) –Significant levels are found in foods and various sources of drinking water –Major source is from biodegradation due to body protein turnover of sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine

67. 67 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sulfur Chief functions –Stabilizes the shape of some proteins –Component of some amino acids Methionine Cysteine –Part of the vitamins biotin and thiamin –Part of the hormone insulin –Combines with toxic substances to form harmless compounds

68. 68 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Major Minerals Sulfur Deficiency –None known –Protein deficiency would occur first Toxicity –Would occur only if sulfur-containing amino acids were eaten in excess (in animals, this depresses growth) Significant sources –All protein-containing foods

69. 69 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iodine DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE RDA –150 micrograms for males & females over 14 UL –1,100 micrograms –Toxic dose is thought to be over 2,000 micrograms for adults 2000 data

70. 70 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iodine Traces of the iodine ion (called iodide) are indispensable to life Any iodine that is ingested in foods is converted into iodide in the GI tract Therefore, iodine is the nutrient in food; iodide is how is used in the body

71. 71 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iodine Average consumption has increased over the last several decades and now approximates 200-500 micrograms, down from a high of 800 micrograms in 1974 –Fast foods use iodized salt liberally –Iodates are present in dough conditioners used in the baking industry –Milk produced by cows exposed to iodide containing medications and disinfectants provide other sources

72. 72 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iodine Roles in the body –Integral part of two thyroid hormones T-3 (triiodothyronine), the active form T-4 (tetraiodothyronine), commonly known as thyroxin Regulates –Body temperature –Metabolic rate –Reproduction –Growth –The making of blood cells –Nerve and muscle function –The rate at which the body cells use oxygen Is required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones –Controls the rate at which energy is released from energy-yielding nutrients

73. 73 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iodine Deficiency –When deficient, thyroid hormone concentrations fall Body responds by increasing thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion in a futile attempt to stimulate iodine uptake by the thyroid gland If deficiency persists, thyroid cells enlarge so as to trap as many atoms of iodide as possible Simple goiter results when the gland becomes enlarged and visible because of iodine deficiency Toxic goiter results when people who over-consume foods containing Goitrogens (thyroid antagonists), antithyroid substances whose effect is not countered by dietary iodide –These goitrogens include plants of the cabbage family –Toxic goiter represents 4% of the cases of goiter

74. 74 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iodine Deficiency (continued) –Symptoms Sluggishness Weight gain May impair fetal development during pregnancy Cretinism -- an iodine deficiency disease where, a maternal deficiency results in mental and physical retardation in the child Goiter Poor school performance

75. 75 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iodine Toxicity –Symptoms Goiter-like thyroid enlargement -- may block the airways in children and cause suffocation Depressed thyroid activity

76. 76 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iodine Significant sources –Iodized salt (first began in the 1930’s) –Seafood –Plants grown in most parts of the country (where landmasses were once under the ocean) –Animals that graze the above noted plants

77. 77 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE RDA –Females under 50 -- 18mg –Females over 50 and males -- 8mg UL –45mg 2001 data

78. 78 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals

79. 79 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Absorption Normally, only 10-15% of dietary iron is absorbed –Increases in response to Diminished supply Increased need –Absorption regulated by transferrin (a blood protein which captures iron from food and carries it to tissues throughout the body)

80. 80 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Absorption Food factors –Heme (the non-protein component of hemoglobin bound to the iron carrying proteins of meat, poultry and fish) iron is absorbed at a rate of about 23% –Non-heme iron (found in vegetables, grains, eggs, meat, fish, and poultry) is absorbed at a rate of 2-20%

81. 81 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Absorption Food factors (con’t) –Absorption enhancers Meat, fish, and poultry contain MFP factor (a factor other than heme) that promotes iron absorption -- even the iron from other foods eaten at the same time Vitamin C, eaten at the same meal, doubles or triples non-heme iron absorption Citric acid (in citrus fruits) and lactic acid (in milk) from foods HCl from the stomach Sugars

82. 82 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Absorption Food factors (con’t) –Absorption inhibitors Tannic acid in tea and coffee interferes with iron absorption Phytates (a non-nutrient component of plant seeds) and fibers in soy products Whole grain cereals and nuts Calcium and phosphorus in milk Ethylenediamine tetra acetate ([EDTA], added in food additives to retard crystal formation and promote color retention)

83. 83 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Chief Functions –Part of the protein hemoglobin which carries oxygen to the blood –Part of the protein myoglobin that makes oxygen available for muscle contraction –Necessary for the utilization of energy Works with several electron transport chain proteins enabling the body to capture the energy from nutrients

84. 84 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Most of the body’s iron is in the blood –Iron losses are greatest when blood is lost –Other sources of loss include urine, sweat, and shed skin

85. 85 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron –Worldwide, iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency

86. 86 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Deficiency Symptoms –Weakness, fatigue When iron stores are exhausted, the body cannot make enough hemoglobin to fill its new red blood cells They then can’t carry enough oxygen from the lungs to the tissues Consequently energy release is hindered

87. 87 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Deficiency Symptoms (con’t) –Pallor (abnormally pale skin) –Reduced resistance to infection (lowered immunity) –Inability to concentrate –Lowered cold tolerance –Reduced learning ability –Itching

88. 88 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Deficiency Symptoms (con’t) –Impaired wound healing –Concave nails –Pale nail beds, eye membranes, and palm creases –Pica -- an appetite for ice, clay, paste, or other non-nutritious substances Seen in iron as well as zinc deficiencies Clears dramatically as soon as iron is added to the diet

89. 89 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Stages of iron deficiency –Iron stores diminish Measures of serum ferratin reflect iron stores –Iron being transported within the body decreases Serum iron falls Iron carrying protein transferrin increases (an adaptation that enhances iron absorption) The more transferrin and the less iron in the blood, the more advanced the deficiency is

90. 90 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Stages of iron deficiency (con’t) –Lack of iron limits hemoglobin production Erythrocyte protoporphryn (the hemoglobin precursor) begins to accumulate as hemoglobin (the globular protein of the red blood cells) and hematocrit (measurement of the volume of red blood cells packed by centrifuge in a given volume of blood) values decline

91. 91 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Iron deficiency and anemia –Iron deficiency -- refers to depleted body iron stores without regard to the degree of depletion or the presence of anemia –Iron deficiency anemia -- refers to the severe depletion of iron stores that results in low hemoglobin concentration and small, pale, red blood cells

92. 92 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Toxicity Symptoms –Infections -- bacteria thrive on iron-rich blood –Lethargy –Joint disease –Enlarged liver –Loss of hair –Death by accidental poisoning in children –Amenorrhea –Impotence

93. 93 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Toxicity Symptoms (con’t) –Iron overload -- known as hemochromatosis Usually caused by a genetic disorder that enhances iron absorption Other causes –Repeated blood transfusions –Massive doses of supplementary iron –Hemosiderosis Results from long-term over-consumption of iron Characterized by large deposits of the iron storage protein hemosiderin in the liver and other tissues

94. 94 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Iron Significant Sources Red Meats Fish Poultry Shellfish Eggs Legumes Dried Fruits Navy Beans: 2.2mg per 1/2 cup cooked Dried Figs: 1.3mg per 1/4 cup Swiss Chard: 2.0mg per 1/2 cup cooked Clams: 25.2mg per 3 oz steamed Sirloin Steak: 2.8 mg per 3 oz cooked Tofu: 6.7mg per 1/2 cup

95. 95 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Selenium DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE RDA -- 55 micrograms (men & women over 14) UL –400 micrograms –Associated with the highest activity of enzymes that guard against oxidants in the body 2000 data

96. 96 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Selenium Chief functions in the body –Part of an antioxidant enzyme (glutathione peroxidase) Prevents free radical formation (molecules with one or more unpaired electrons) by donating one of it’s electrons thus blocking the oxidative chain reaction before it starts Oxidative stress has been implicated in –The aging process –Development of cancer, arthritis, cataracts, heart disease

97. 97 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Selenium Chief functions in the body (con’t) –Works with Vitamin E -- if free radicals do form and a chain reaction starts, vitamin E stops it –Works closely with the enzyme that converts thyroid hormone to its active form

98. 98 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Selenium Deficiency symptoms –Predisposition to heart disease (cardiac tissue becomes fibrous) –Keshan disease The heart disease associated with selenium deficiency Characterized by heart enlargement and insufficiency -- fibrous tissue replaces the muscle tissue that normally composes the middle layer of the walls of the heart Prevalent in regions of China and probably caused by a virus

99. 99 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Selenium Toxicity symptoms –Nausea –Vomiting –Diarrhea –Loss of hair and nails –Lesions of the skin and nervous system –Irritability

100. 100 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Selenium Significant Sources –Seafood –Meat –Grains, dependant on soil conditions –Vegetables, dependant on soil conditions

101. 101 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Zinc DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE RDA –Males over 14 -- 11 milligrams –Females over 19 -- 8 milligrams UL –40 milligrams 2001 data

102. 102 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Zinc –Absorption rate ranges from 15 to 40% depending on a person’s zinc status -- if more is needed, more is absorbed –Recommendations assume 20% of dietary zinc is absorbed –Fiber and phytates bind zinc, limiting its bioavailability –Zinc toothpaste reduces plaque

103. 103 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Zinc Chief functions in the body –Part of the hormone insulin and many enzymes -- more than 70 enzymes require it as a co-factor –Involved with making genetic material and proteins –Immune reactions –Transport of Vitamin A –Taste perception –Wound healing –The making of sperm –Normal development of the fetus -- protects from heavy metal poisoning (e.g. lead)

104. 104 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Zinc Deficiency Symptoms -- so pervasive that generalized malnutrition and sickness are more likely to be diagnosed –Growth failure in children (even seen in mild deficiencies) –Sexual retardation –Poor sensitivity to taste of salt –Anorexia –Poor wound healing –Hindered digestion and absorption –Impaired immune response –Impairs vitamin A metabolism -- vitamin A deficiency symptoms may appear

105. 105 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Zinc Toxicity Symptoms –High doses appear to accelerate the development of atherosclerosis –Noted in doses greater than 2 grams Vomiting Diarrhea Fever Exhaustion Muscular pain and incoordination –Noted in doses just a few milligrams above the recommended intake (especially when taken regularly over time) Lowers the body’s copper content

106. 106 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Zinc Significant Sources Protein-containing foods –Meat –Fish –Poultry –Whole grains –Vegetables Black Beans: 1.0mg per 1/2 cup cooked Crabmeat: 3.6mg per 3 oz steamed Yogurt: 2.2mg per cup Green Peas: 1.0mg per 1/2 cup Sirloin Steak: 5.5mg per 3 oz cooked Oysters: 154mg per 3 oz steamed

107. 107 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others Copper DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE –RDA 900 micrograms (male & female over 19) –UL 10,000 micrograms 2001 data

108. 108 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others Copper –Is a part of several enzymes –Helps to make red blood cells –Involved in making collagen –Ensures proper utilization of iron –Deficiency is rare -- dietary factors such as phytates and high intakes of vitamin C, zinc, and iron interfere with copper absorption –Zinc competes with copper for absorption, -- people taking over-the-counter zinc pills may develop copper deficiency –Best sources -- organ meats, seafood, nuts, seeds

109. 109 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t) Manganese DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE –AI Males over 19 -- 2.3 milligrams Females over 19 -- 1.8 milligrams –UL 11 milligrams 2001 data

110. 110 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t) Manganese –Cooperates with many enzymes helping to facilitate many of the different metabolic processes –Widely distributed in foods -- deficiencies have not been seen in humans –Toxicity may be severe Symptoms –Brain disease –Abnormalities in appearance and behavior

111. 111 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t) Fluoride DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE –AI Males over 19 -- 3.8 mg Females over 14 -- 3.1 mg –UL 10.0 mg 1998 data

112. 112 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t) Fluoride –Aids in formation of tooth crystals that strongly resist acid & inhibits the growth of bacteria –Where diets are high in fluoride, tooth decay is reduced –Drinking water is the most significant source - - water with 1 ppm fluoride offers the greatest protection with virtually no risk of toxicity

113. 113 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t) Fluoride –Excess fluoride during tooth development can cause fluorosis (discoloration and pitting of tooth enamel)

114. 114 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t) Chromium DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE –AI Males under 50 -- 35 micrograms Males 50 and older -- 30 micrograms Females under 50 -- 25 micrograms Females 50 and older -- 20 micrograms 2001 data

115. 115 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t) Chromium –Participates in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism –Works closely with insulin facilitating the uptake of glucose into the cells –Deficiencies unlikely; toxicity unknown as a nutritional disorder –Best sources -- unrefined foods Liver Whole grains Nuts Brewer’s yeast Cheeses

116. 116 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t) Molybdenum DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE –RDA 45 micrograms (Adults 19 and over) –UL 2,000 micrograms 2001 data

117. *****117 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t) Molybdenum –Is a working part of many enzymes –Deficiencies and toxicity unknown as nutritional disorders –Sources are widespread to include Legumes Breads & other grains Leafy green vegetables Milk Liver

118. ****118 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t ) Nickel –Deficiencies harm the liver and other organs DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE –UL 1.0 milligram 2001 data

119. ***119 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t ) Silicon –Involved in bone calcification in animals DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE –UL Not determined 2001 data

120. **120 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t ) Boron –May play a role in bone development and prevention of osteoporosis DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE –UL 20 milligrams 2001 data

121. *121 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t ) Vanadium –No biological function in humans has been identified DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUE –UL 1.8 milligrams (based on adverse effects on laboratory animals) 2001 data

122. 122 WATER & MINERALS Minerals Trace Minerals Others (con’t ) Cobalt –Mineral in vitamin B-12 –Is not an essential nutrient Tin –Necessary for growth in animals