1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Unit 7A Memory

2. Memory Games http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/ Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

3. Human memory is learning what has persisted over time, information that has been stored and can be retrieved What is Memory?

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What is Memory? Memory – Any system – human, animal, or machine – that encodes, stores, and retrieves information

5. You are what you remember Without memory you would have no past or future, only a present Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

6. EncodingStorageRetrieval 3 basic tasks of memory

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 EncodingStorageRetrieval Putting info in the brain Elaboration – trying to understand it Making it meaningful to you The way I see it!!

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 EncodingStorageRetrieval Keeping the info in the brain The way I see it!!

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 EncodingStorageRetrieval Getting stuff out of your brain The way I see it!!

10. Models of memory By Atkinson and Shiffrin – the older model Sensory memory – a fleeting needs to be remembered info Short-term Memory- where we encode the information through rehearsal Long-term memory- used to be retrieved later Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

11. What is Atkinson – Shiffrin model of memory storage?

12. Figure 7A.2 A modified three-stage processing model of memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed, but today’s researchers recognize other ways long-term memories form. For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it. And so much active processing occurs in the short-term memory stage that many now prefer the term working memory. © 2011 by Worth Publishers

13. Working memory: updated model Process new information along with information from long term memory.Working memory associates new and old information and solves problems. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

14. Let’s talk about encoding. Putting info into the brain

15. How we encode Automatic processing- parallel processing doing many things at once. Ex: you automatically process info about space, time, frequency: Where you ate last night? Takes no effort Effortful processing- encoded info with a great deal of effort – usually long-lasting memories- uses rehearsal- remembering vocab words: Unit’s vocabulary Elaborative rehearsal- Relate the new information to something already in your Long Term Memory Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

16. Now let’s try something.

17. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Can you remember this? GBX IYU CSE GWE LIY TRN

18. Ebbinghaus- Those who learn quickly forget quickly. The amount recalled depends on time spent learning Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

19. What is spacing effect? Memory is better for repeated information if repetitions occur spaced over time than if they occur massed, one after another. No cramming! Why? 1.Spacing distributed practice (instead of massed practice) reduces retroactive and proactive interference. (Proactive- old memories, Retroactive- new memories) 2.REM sleep helps memory. So study Tuesday, sleep, study Wednesday, sleep. You’ll do better. 3.Distributed practice may cause you to encode it in different ways and in different moods. Melton & Schulman, 1970

20. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What is serial positioning effect? Imagine a grocery list: milk, eggs, butter, bread, celery, chocolate, Big Red, Beans, chips. We most likely will remember the first few items and the last few.

21. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Encoding: Serial Position Effect 12 Percent age of words recalled 0 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Position of word in list 1234567891011 Serial Position Effect-tendency to recall best the last items in a list

22. What we encode Levels of processing- when processing verbal information we associate it with what we already know. Depends on context, our experiences. What encoding gets the best results? Visual= images, acoustic= sounds and Semantic= meaning of words Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

23. Acoustic encoding Click it or ticket, Drive Sober or get Pulled over, If the glove doesn’t fit you must equit

24. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Acoustic encoding Think of a song!!!!!!!!! What are the parts of the human body?

25. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Can you remember all 50 states? Make up a song. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A9RlJ q3IOHg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A9RlJ q3IOHg

26. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Semantic encoding “Semantic” means meaning. We remember stuff that has meaning better than their structure and sounds. Find meaning in what you are trying to remember

27. Visual encoding How do the words appear? ALL CAPITALS Using mental images to remember. Where is something located on the page? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

28. Mnemonics (encoding) Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units like horizontal organization--1776149218121941 often occurs automatically use of acronyms HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior PEMDAS - ?????

29. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chunking Can you remember this number? 19039848557

30. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Levels of Encoding

31. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How can we use this as students?

32. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Encoding is effective when You pay attention. “Selective attention” If you don’t pay attention, your sensory memory will hear blah, blah. You have to pay attention to get info into your working memory

33. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Encoding summary Encoding is most effective when we can see it, hear it, touch it, and UNDERSTAND it. Also, it’s most effective when we combine those elements. Encoding is best when we care.

34. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 If a subject is asked to remember this list of numbers in 10 seconds: 48, 31, 45, 76, 97, 84, 26, 12, 67, which numbers will she most likely remember? a.84, 45 b.48, 67 c.12, 31 d.97, 76

35. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way, but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a pattern of meaning Now let’s talk about storage

36. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What are the Three Stages of Memory? Sensory Memory Working Memory (STM) Long-term Memory

37. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The First Stage: Sensory Memory On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second Try to remember as many letters as you can

38. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 D J B X H G C L Y

39. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The First Stage: Sensory Memory How many can you recall?

40. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 D J B X H G C L Y

41. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The First Stage: Sensory Memory Sensory Memory has a large capacity, very short duration, allows quick/online commerce with environment. It registers sensations coming into our "system" from the environment, allowing us to pick up on all the rich stimuli "out there." There are many "types" of sensory memories, corresponding to our different senses, as in eyes, hears, touch, taste, etc.

42. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sensory memory Sensory memory lasts no more than 2 seconds. The precise length of different types of sensory memories differs (e.g., visual sensory memory is shorter than auditory).

43. What is sensory memory? Iconic memory- fleeting photographic memory. For a few 10ths of a second our eyes take an exact picture of a scene Echoic memory- impeccable, yet fleeting, auditory memory – Auditory echoes last for about 3 – 4 seconds Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

44. Sensory Memory Sensory memory traces fade fairly rapidly. We simply lose the information UNLESS we do something further with it. Pay attention to it Selective attention

45. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory STM Long-term Memory Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal.

46. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

47. Short Term Memory (working) STM can hold unrehearsed information up to 20 seconds. STM can hold 7 items +/- 2, according to some theories.

48. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Encoding and Storage in Working Memory (STM) Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units

49. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Okay, earlier we talked about chunking as a means of encoding (understanding). Now we will mention it as a means of Short-term storage.

50. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chunking Can you remember this number? 19039848557

51. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chunking How about this one? 1-903-984-8557

52. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory

53. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maintenance Rehearsal JLo says, “My phone Number is 469-259- 5968” You then repeat it to yourself until you can write it down somewhere.

54. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Elaborative rehearsal – Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM Example: Suppose you had to know the following definition of the term "norm" for your sociology class: norms are standards of desirable behavior that people are supposed to follow in their interactions with others. If you were to use rote rehearsal, you would repeat this definition over and over many times. If, however, you were to use elaborative rehearsal, you would expand on the above definition by adding additional information and associating it with information already in your memory. Below, the meaning of the term is analyzed in greater detail and also includes examples that connect the information to knowledge you may already have in your memory system. Norms often differ depending on the situation. Example: It's okay to tell my problems to my parents or friends but not to strangers.

55. Goal The goal is to get information into our long term memories (LTM). LTM is limitless Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

56. The Biological Components of Memory Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

57. What parts of brain are involved in memory? The Prefrontal Cortex--Site of Working Memory (STM)

58. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The hippocampus is part of a network of regions in the brain important for memory. Research suggests that the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus may work in concert to regulate which information is consolidated in memory

59. Synaptic Changes Neurons communicate with each other via the neurotransmitter messengers. Experience changes neural networks. Sea Slug study Kandal & Schwatz discovered when a sea slug learns Classical Conditioning) it releases more serotonin at certain synapses- These synapses become more efficient transmitting signals Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

60. Study Continued Increased synaptic efficiency makes efficient neural circuits These memory circuits increase their sensitivity for hours or weeks Sending neuron needs less prompting to release its neurotransmitter and receiving neuron site may increase This longer strengthening of potential neural firing is called Long Term Potentiation – LTP. Thi is the neural basis for learning and memory LTP is the physical basis for memory Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

61. Drugs that boost glutamate. This neurotransmitter enhances LTP. Need to do so without nasty side effects. Best known memory enhancer : SLEEP Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

62. Stress Hormones and memory When stressed or excited our emotion- triggered stress hormones create more glucose energy for the brain Amygdala also elevates activity and available proteins in the brain. Result: Arousal can sear certain memories into the brain Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

63. Flashbulb memories? Stress and memory Memories we never forget because of the emotion involved. The brain commands: “Capture This”

64. Flashbulb Memories Continued Although flashbulb memories are vivid- Misinformation can seep into them Prolonged stress can corrode neural connections and shrink the brain area (hippocampus) Also when sudden hormones are flowing memories can be blocked – Mind Goes Blank Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

65. The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM

66. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

67. Semantic memory Includes memory for: language, facts general knowledge Episodic memory Includes memory for: events, personal experiences Includes memory for: motor skills, operant and classical conditioning Long-term memory Declarative memoryProcedural memory

68. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 3 types of amnesia? Infantile amnesia – stuff we don’t remember as babies Anterograde amnesia – Inability to form memories for new information Retrograde amnesia – Inability to remember information previously stored in memory Note: procedural memory seems unaffected!

69. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Retrograde amnesia Any soap opera where someone can’t remember who they are, where they live, etc. Quarterbacks who can’t remember games when they got concussions.

70. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Anterograde Amnesia

71. 50 First Dates http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehtk3Nfn X4A Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

72. HM: Amnesic Severe epilepsy, treated with surgery to bilaterally remove medial temporal lobes, including hippocampus Operation 9/1953, 27 years old HIPPOCAMPUSMEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBES

73. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= IKP6tBhM2T4&safety_mode=true &persist_safety_mode=1&safe=act ive

74. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 LTM Consolidation – The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories Our ultimate goal as students!!!!! We want to remember this stuff on May 5!

75. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do We Retrieve Memories? Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued

76. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How we get information out of memory Retrieval cues – Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior Example: hints that a teacher gives you during a test without giving you the answer. Mnemonic devices Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge

77. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Retrieval Cues What is Priming? – Technique for retrieving memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory. Giving hints to remember.

78. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Priming If you are presented with the following words: assassin, octopus, avocado, mystery, sheriff, climate

79. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Priming An hour later, you would easily be able to identify which of the following words you had previously seen: twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery

80. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 ch_ _ _ _ nk o _ t _ _ _ us _ og _ y _ _ _ _ l _ m _ te Priming However, an hour later, you would also have a much easier time filling in the blanks of some of these words than others:

81. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Priming While you did not actively try to remember “octopus” and “climate” from the first list, they were primed in the reading, which made them easier to identify in this task chipmunk octopus bogeyman climate

82. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Name the Seven Dwarves

83. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Remembering off the top of your head is recall.

84. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Now pick pick out the seven dwarves. Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy (this is recognition)

85. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Seven Dwarves Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

86. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What is Recall and Recognition? Recall – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information (fill in blank) remember without priming Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented (multiple choice) remember with priming

87. déjà vu- already seen Being in a context similar to one we have been in before can trigger déjà vu A current situation may be filled with cues that unconsciously retrieve an earlier, similar experience Possible dual processing is the cause Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

88. Other Factors Affecting Retrieval Mood congruent memory – A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood A good mood reminds you of good times. A fight with your boyfriend reminds you of something else he did to piss you off.

89. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Godden & Baddeley (1975) Memory experiment with deep-sea divers Deep-sea divers learned words either on land or underwater They then recalled the words either on land or underwater

90. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Why do we forget?

91. Three sins of Forgetting Absent-mindedness- inattention to detail leads to encoding failure – where are my glasses? Transience- storage decays over time- don’t use it lose it! Who was in your first grade? Blocking- stored information is inaccessible- remembering someone in a movie or Proactive and Retroactive interference Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

92. Sins of Distortion Misattribution- confused on the source of the information time or place or person- NCIS episode Suggestibility- an aftereffect of misinformation- a leading question- Did ? Touch you? Becomes a false memory Bias- memories jaded by beliefs- My child could not have done what you said Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

93. Sin of Intrusion Persistence- Haunted by unwanted memories Cannot seem to forget Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

94. Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little more is forgotten Percent retained 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Days 51015202530

95. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivated forgetting AKA “repression” We want to forget awful things.

96. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Suggestibility Process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion Misinformation effect – The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation: Did Mr. Smith touch your private parts?

97. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitnesses: Recollections are less influenced by leading questions if possibility of memory bias is forewarned Passage of time leads to increase in misremembering information (JFK assassination) Age of the witness matters Confidence in memory is not a sign of accuracy

98. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What is repressed memory controversy? Elizabeth Loftus studied how false memories are planted into people’s minds. The misinformation effect is the planting of misleading information into one’s memory

99. Misinformation effect http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=il0u2s_ WGXA Video in psych folder: repressed memories memory distortion Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

100. Let’s review. 1. The three stages of Atkinson-Shiffrin process of memory are: a) iconic, echoic, encoding b) sensory, short term, long term c) shallow, medium, and deep processing d) semantic, episodic, procedural

101. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 2. Which of the following examples best illustrates episodic memory? a) telling someone how to tie a shoe b) answering correctly that the Battle of Hastings was in 1066 c) knowing that the word for black in French is noir d) remembering that a clown was at your fifth birthday party

102. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 When Sue memorized her shopping list, she got to the store and forgot many items from the middle of the list. This is due to the a.Inappropriate encoding b.Retrograde amnesia c.Proactive interference d.The serial-position effect

103. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 3. Doug wrote a grocery list of 10 items, but leaves it at home. The list included in order: peas, corn, squash, onions, apples, pears, bananas, flour, milk, and eggs. If the law of primacy holds, which of the following is Doug most likely to remember when he gets to the store? a) peas, pears, eggs b) banana, flour, peas c) apples, pears, bananas d) peas, corn, squash

104. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 5. According to the levels of processing theory of memory a) we remember items that are repeated again and again b) maintenance rehearsal will encode items into our long-term memory c) deep processing involves elaborative rehearsal, ensuring encoding into long-term memory d) input, output, and storage are the three levels

105. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 6. Which of the following brain structures plays a key role in transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory? a) hypothalamus b) thalamus c) hippocampus d) frontal lobe

106. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 7. Dan was drunk, so his girlfriend convinced him to get out of his car, and she drove him home in her car. He could not remember where his car was parked when he got up the next morning, but after drinking some liquor, Dan remembered where he left his car. This phenomenon best illustrates: a) the misinformation effect b) mood-congruent memory c) the framing effect d) state-dependent memory

107. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 8. Which of the following terms is synonymous with “motivated forgetting”? a) regression b) repression c) sublimation d) rationalization

108. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 9. A retrieval cue is a) a brain structure stimulus used to locate a particular memory b) the same thing as an elaboration encoding variable c) a stimulus associated with a memory that is used to locate that memory d) always based on the mood you were in when a memory was first encoded

109. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 10. Focusing awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or events involves a) encoding b) attention c) elaboration d) clustering

110. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 11. If you were attempting to recall a memory, the memory process you would be using is a) encoding b) storage c) retrieval d) acquisition

111. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 12. A memory code that emphasizes the meaning of the verbal input is called a) a structural code b) a phonemic code c) a semantic code d) an episodic code

112. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 13. Which level of processing should result in the longest lasting memory codes? a) structural encoding b) mnemonic encoding c) semantic encoding d) phonemic encoding

113. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 14. Pseudoforgetting is viewed as a function of a) interference effects b) lack of attention c) hippocampal damage d) insufficient retrieval cues

114. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 15. Overlearning material will a) not improve retention b) improve retention c) improve retention for nonsense syllables, but not much else d) result in “burnout”

115. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 7 Answer Key 1. B 2. D 3. D 4. B 5. C 6. C 7. D 8. B 9. C 10. B 11. C 12. C 13. C 14. B 15. B

116. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Essay Question Possibilities!! One of the following essay questions will appear on your test, be familiar with all of them!!

117. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Essay Question # 1 Using the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory, describe the capacity, the durability, and the typical form of information storage in each of the three human memory systems, and identify the processes that transfer information from one system to another.

118. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Essay Question # 2 Compare the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of short-term memory with Baddely’s more complex model of short-term memory.

119. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Essay Question # 3 Compare and evaluate decay theory and interference theory as explanations of forgetting.

120. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Essay Question # 4 Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory, declarative and procedural memory, and semantic and episodic memory, and explain how these are interrelated.

121. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Essay Question # 5 Outline some strategies that can be used to improve everyday memory.

122. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Good Luck! Make sure to double check all of your answers and study them for the upcoming exam. Remember, AT LEAST FIVE of the questions from this quiz will make some sort of appearance on the chapter test along with one of the essay questions. Take advantage of this study guide and good luck on your test!