NATIONS REGIONS THE GLOBAL VILLAGE And how we got here…

1st test next week on last week and this week’s lectures.
Study the PowerPoint and Use the Study Guide that’s on the website. Questions are taken from the visible PowerPoint slides. More detail is on the hidden slides or slide notes but no questions are taken from them. Data questions: No specifics required unless I say so in lecture but you need to know ‘greater than, increase/decrease’ type answers. Date questions: I give you dates/periods and you have to know what went on.

1. Major trends that have shaped the world since 1945.
2. Two approaches to/themes of globalisation. 3. Limits of Globalisation. 4. Globalisation has seen the expansion of what? 5. Some of the principle driving factors of globalisation. 6. Functional/spatial differences between internationalization and globalisation processes. 7. What are the commanding heights and who coined the term. 8. Territoriality and the socio-cultural needs of groups. 9. Globalisation changes 10. Contagion and Babel refer to what. 11. Theories of statehood and types of states. as a cascade failure involving what. 13. Failed states. 14. Composition of the global territorial economic system. 15. Synchronous model of demographic, economic, and urban change. 16. Spatial distribution of new nations. 17. Precursors to the industrial revolution. 18. Mercantilism, renaissance, revolution – attributes and links. 19. Urbanisation and urban growth. 20. Defining regions. 21. Major frameworks of post-World War II restructuring. 22. Bretton Woods Agreement. 23. Reasons for pursuing nationhood. 24. Ardrey’s Territorial Imperative. 25. Attributes of the pre-1945, 1945 to 1973, and post-1973 periods. 26. The Global Village as a concept and historical reasons. 27. Dependencies, blocs, autonomous areas, federations. Is not a substitute for studying nor will I entertain complaints that it misguided you! Normally: Do not expect you to remember any data slides except in terms of greater than, less than, increase, decrease terms etc, unless I mention that you need to remember the data in class. Do not expect you to remember dates - I give you periods and you need to know what went on.

To Do Today List – Look at…
What’s in a name – countries, nations, states, regions. Changing structure of the world – how many of what do we have. What happens when countries don’t make it – failed states. Why people want to be a nation – Ardrey’s Territorial Imperative. How we got to be an urban species – socio-economic evolutions and revolutions. Colonialism, past, present, future. STRUCTURE - NATIONS

Unraveling the World STRUCTURE - NATIONS

Just How Many Countries Are There Anyway?
Not as easy as it seems to count countries. No agreement on the exact number, even of countries (strange but true). No agreement (really) on what constitutes a country (stranger but just as true). And then there is a nation – does it differ from country? And what about a state? Or State? Jewish nation? Jewish State? Israel? All the same? First Nations? So, not as easy as it may appear to count countries. No agreement on the exact number even of countries (strange but true). No agreement (really) on what constitutes a country (stranger but just as true). And then there is a nation – does it differ from country? And what about a state? Or State? Jewish nation? Jewish State? Israel? All the same? First Nations? How many countries? That’s not so easy to answer, depending on how you define what you mean by “country”. Do you mean nation? Independent sovereign state? And who decides? I am sure many in Quebec would consider themselves a nation apart or a nation-in-waiting, but does that make it so? And there are many examples around the world of such areas. As well, there is the Jewish nation. Does that mean just Israel? Or all Jewish people around the world? And would this latter include secular Jews? So definitions are problematic. But we can begin to make so sense of it all by setting some almost entirely arbitrary rules about what we consider a country/nation/state. We’ll start by arbitrarily using these terms synonymously. A Brief Inventory of the World Currently there are 192 nations on earth according to the UN, 25% in Africa, 23% in Asia and the Middle East, and 21% in Europe and the former USSR. Seventy percent of nations created since 1945, more than at any other time in recorded history. Africa alone accounts for a third of the new nations created in the world, with over 90% of the nations there being less than fifty years old. Even the European heartland has seen the birth of 15 new nations A Chronological List of Independence Dates for Africa. CountryIndependence Date Prior ruling country Source for following: Liberia, Republic of26 July 1847-South Africa, Republic of31 May 1910BritainEgypt, Arab Republic of28 February 1922BritainEthiopia 1, People's Democratic Republic of5 May 1941ItalyLibya (Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya)24 December 1951BritainSudan, Democratic Republic of1 January 1956Britain/EgyptMorocco 2, Kingdom of2 March 1956France 2Tunisia, Republic of20 March 1956FranceGhana, Republic of6 March 1957BritainGuinea, Republic of2 October 1958FranceCameroon 3, Republic of1 January 1960FranceSenegal, Republic of4 April 1960FranceTogo, Republic of27 April 1960FranceMali, Republic of22 September 1960FranceMadagascar, Democratic Republic of26 June 1960FranceCongo (Kinshasa), Democratic Republic of the30 June 1960BelgiumSomalia, Democratic Republic of1 July 1960BritainBenin, Republic of1 August 1960FranceNiger, Republic of3 August 1960FranceBurkina Faso, Popular Democratic Republic of5 August 1960FranceCôte d'Ivoire, Republic of (Ivory Coast)7 August 1960FranceChad, Republic of11 August 1960FranceCentral African Republic13 August 1960FranceCongo (Brazzaville), Republic of the15 August 1960FranceGabon, Republic of17 August 1960FranceNigeria 4, Federal Republic of1 October 1960BritainMauritania, Islamic Republic of28 November 1960FranceSierra Leone, Republic of27 April 1961BritainTanzania, United Republic of9 December 1961BritainBurundi, Republic of1 July 1962BelgiumRwanda, Republic of1 July 1962BelgiumAlgeria, Democratic and Popular Republic of3 July 1962FranceUganda, Republic of9 October 1962BritainKenya, Republic of12 December 1963BritainMalawi, Republic of6 July 1964BritainZambia, Republic of24 October 1964BritainGambia, Republic of The18 February 1965BritainBotswana, Republic of30 September 1966BritainLesotho, Kingdom of4 October 1966BritainMauritius, State of12 March 1968BritainSwaziland, Kingdom of6 September 1968BritainEquatorial Guinea, Republic of12 October 1968SpainGuinea-Bissau, Republic of10 September 1974PortugalMozambique, Republic of25 June 1975PortugalCape Verde, Republic of5 July 1975PortugalComoros, Federal Islamic Republic of the6 July 1975FranceSão Tomé and Principe, Democratic Republic of12 July 1975PortugalAngola, People's Republic of11 November 1975PortugalWestern Sahara 528 February 1976SpainSeychelles, Republic of29 June 1976BritainDjibouti, Republic of27 June 1977FranceZimbabwe, Republic of18 April 1980BritainNamibia, Republic of21 March 1990South AfricaEritrea, State of24 May 1993Ethiopia Notes Ethiopia is usually considered to have never been colonised, but following the invasion by Italy in Italian settlers arrived. Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed and went into exile in the UK. He regained his throne on 5 May 1941 when he re-entered Addis Ababa with his troops. Italian resistance was not completely overcome until 27th November 1941. Also for Morocco:Morocco (Spanish Northern Zone, Marruecos)7 April 1956SpainMorocco (International Zone, Tangiers)29 October 1956-Morocco (Spanish Southern Zone, Marruecos)27 April 1958SpainMorocco (Ifni)30 June 1969Spain Also for CameroonCameroon (British Cameroon South)1 October 1961Britain Also for NigeriaNigeria (British Cameroon North)1 June 1961Britain Western Sahara was immediately seized by Morocco, a move contested by Polisario (Popular Front for the Liberation of the Saguia el Hamra and Rio del Oro). STRUCTURE - NATIONS

What’s in a Name? Country.
The term “country” is usually considered to be a politically independent entity. But there are examples where this is not the case as with the component “countries” of the U.K. – Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and England. And then of course there’s “countryside”, which has nothing to do with sovereign nationhood… … unless it refers to terroir, such as Basque country. The term “country” is usually considered to be a politically independent entity. But there are examples where this is not the case as with the component “countries” of the U.K. – Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and England. But then of course there’s “countryside”, which has nothing to do with sovereign nationhood… … unless it refers to terroir, such as Basque country. STRUCTURE - NATIONS

What’s in a Name? Terroir.
Originally the geographic attributes of a growing area: e.g. wine, coffee, chocolate, Extended to include social/cultural aspects of a larger region such that it means “our country”. E.g. Basque country or Catalonia or even Quebecois. Often extends into separation and secession movements. The term “terroir” originally referred to the sum total of climate, geomorphology, ecosystem, and geography that makes up a growing area for wine, coffee, chocolate, and other such products. It is extended sometimes to include the social and cultural aspects of a larger region such that it means “our country”, as in Basque country or Catalonia or even Quebec. In this latter interpretation it is synonymous with ‘sense of place’. STRUCTURE - NATIONS

What’s in a Name? State and state.
State (uppercase ‘S’) is usually used synonymously with country to mean autonomous political entity. To be clear that it refers to an autonomous country, the term is sometimes preceded by the word ‘sovereign’ as in sovereign States. A ‘small ‘s’ state is a unit within a sovereign State – such as the states of the United States. However virtually no-one pays attention to the big ’S’ small ’s’ distinction! STRUCTURE - NATIONS

What’s in a Name? Nation. A nation can be many things: all countries are nations but not all nations are countries. Examples would be the Jewish nation, which refers to all Jewish people as distinct from the secular and spatially contiguous State of Israel. Then there are the North American Indian nations, the United Nations – or the Ford nation Lord Durham (of The Durham Report, 1848) was sent to Canada to examine what was going on between the English and the French. He reported that he found “two nations warring in the bosom of a single state.” He recommended a union of Upper, Lower Canada and the Maritime Provinces. STRUCTURE - NATIONS

What’s in a Name? Other Qualifiers.
Other names used to represent sovereign Statehood: Kingdom, Monarchy, Empire etc, (from which we get the word sovereign). Republic means ruled by the people through elections in law. Flavours are: Federal Republic or Democratic Republic (usually when they are neither), Islamic Republics (never are), Union of… etc. Then there is the Most Serene Republic of San Marino. Dominion, as in Dominion of Canada. Commonwealth, Federation, etc. In the past and present there have been other names used to represent sovereign Statehood, all of which describe the official type of nation with which you are dealing: Kingdom, Monarchy, Empire etc, (from which we get the word sovereign). Republic, Federal Republic or Democratic Republic (usually when they are not), Islamic Republic, Union of… etc. Dominion, as in Dominion of Canada. Commonwealth, Federation, etc STRUCTURE - NATIONS

The Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States (1933)
Article 1: “The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states.” Article 3 (states that…): “The political existence of the state is independent of recognition by the other states.“ montevideo is the capital of Uruguay STRUCTURE - NATIONS

Declarative versus Constitutional
Declarative theory of statehood: A nation exists regardless of whether other nations recognize it ... comes out of Article 3 of Montevideo Conference. Constitutional theory of statehood: A nation requires recognition by other nations to be legitimate. STRUCTURE - NATIONS

Declarative versus Constitutional
But can a nation be recognised and its government not? (e.g. currently, Burma, Zimbabwe). Yes, in general. The United States recognises Burma as a nation state but not the current regime or name of Myanmar – the regime’s name for Burma. And how many nations does it take to recognize another? Not all. Israel is not recognised fully by 36 other U.N. nations, including Taiwan because Israel chooses to recognise mainland China. And which states? Would you rather that the United States or Haiti recognised you? STRUCTURE - NATIONS

De Jure and De Facto Recognition
De jure recognition means recognition in law. De facto recognition means recognition by control – of territory and/or population. Usually de jure states are also de facto states, but examples exist otherwise (e.g. the Republic of France during the Nazi occupation). Real test of nationhood is how many other nations recognize your claim. Just what defines a “nation” anyway? First we can say that there are nations that are recognised de jure or in law, by other nations. The more nations that recognise them the more legitimate their claims to nationhood. Perhaps here we can use the UN as the final arbiter: if the UN recognises a nation then it is a legal nation. Second there are those nations that exist de facto or by the fact that they control a given territory and claim sovereignty over it. (Sovereignty is an interesting and loaded word that means you claim the land for your king or queen). In most instances de jure states are also de facto, that is to say they exist in law and by fact of territory. Circumstances could and do exist wherein de jure states were not de facto states – the Republic of France during its occupation by the Nazis is a case in point. The Nazis created what they called Free France run by French nationals and recognised by the Axis forces. But the legitimate pre-invasion government of the Republic of France, in the person of Charles De Gaulle, was a de jure government in exile with no de facto territory recognised by the Allied forces and awaiting the outcome of the conflict. STRUCTURE - NATIONS

Who Recognises Who – Or Not?
Non-UN States not recognised by any other State (1): Partially recognised U.N. member States (6): Republic of Somaliland. Republic of Armenia. Non-UN States recognised by non-U.N. member States (2): People’s Republic of China. Republic of Cyprus. Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. State of Israel. Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. Non-UN States recognised by a U.N. member State (7): Republic of Korea (S. Korea). Republic of Abkhazia Republic of China (a.k.a. Taiwan) IN TOTAL 16 STATES. Republic of Kosovo. Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. NO State of Palestine. DON’T TRY AND REMEMBER ALL THESE Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Republic of South Ossetia. They won’t be on any test  STRUCTURE - NATIONS

Autonomous Areas/Regions
And then there are… Dependencies Territories that exist external to but dependent on de jure nations – e.g. Bermuda and the U.K. Autonomous Areas/Regions Territories that exist as partially self governing units within de jure nations – e.g. Sicily. Federations A union of partially self governing de jure states that form a de jure nation under a central federal government. E.g. USA and the Russian Federation. Criteria: Are they external or internal to the host nation? How autonomous are they? Third, there are territorial entities who, by choice, do not wish to be considered nations yet do govern themselves to varying degrees. These are the dependencies, the autonomous areas, and the federations. These entities still make up the majority of all territorial units in the world. Dependencies are just that – dependent territories of de jure nations, almost all of which are spatially separated (very important) from their patron nations. They have varying degrees of autonomy. Perhaps in the world, depending on whether you call them dependencies or other names (see below)… Autonomous areas are territories that exists within de jure nations and by definition have some autonomy from the host nation over their governance. Federations are a broad category of spatial entity comprised of territories with varying independence. Examples would be Canada (its provinces are relatively independent from its federal government compared to some nations), the US (its states are similar to Canada but less so), the EU (its units are all independent de jure nations but governed fairly closely by many agreed upon laws and rules), and the Russian Federation (perhaps the best example of a loosely connected set of supposedly de jure nations with very little actual autonomy from the Kremlin). STRUCTURE - NATIONS

And… Blocs Loosely connected groups of territories sharing some commonality of culture, commodity, production, region, politics, religion, etc. Examples: OPEC as a commodity bloc. NAFTA nations as a trading bloc. League of Arab Nations as a cultural bloc. EU as a regional multi factor, principally economic bloc. And about 200 others. Fourth, there are the blocs. These are loosely connected groups of nations usually based on adherence to some formalised rules of trade or commonality in the production of commodities. The best examples here are the OPEC nations, the NAFTA nations etc. At least 250 STRUCTURE - NATIONS

So just how many countries are there anyway?
Depends who you ask. US State Department1 UN2 Wiki3 # of de jure independent states 195 193 206 # of other 66 ? 11 TOTAL DE JURE ENTITIES 261 217 2U.N. also has The Vatican and Palestine with permanent observer status. 3Includes 16 contested de jure entities. Canada recognises 207 spatial units with a diplomatic, consular or trade office presence. STRUCTURE - NATIONS

Nations, New and Old Region Total # of nations Percent of all nations
Number of nations created in region since 1945 New nations as a % of all nations in a region New nations as a % of all new nations in the world Oceania 14 7.2% 12 85.7% 8.7% Asia & Middle East 43 22.2% 34 79.1% 24.6% Europe and Russian Federation 47 24.2% 26 55.3% 18.8% Africa 55 28.4% 53 96.4% 38.4% North & Central America 23 11.9% 11 47.8% 8.0% South America 6.2% 2 16.7% 1.4% TOTAL ALL REGIONS 194 100.00% 138 71.1% STRUCTURE - NATIONS

New Countries Since 1990 Fifteen new countries became independent with the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Yugoslavia dissolved in the early 1990s into five independent countries. Thirteen other countries came and went through a variety of causes: Namibia became independent of South Africa. North and South Yemen merged. East Germany and West Germany merged. The Marshall Islands gained independence from the U.S. Micronesia gained independence from the U.S. Palau gained independence from the U.S. The Czech Republic and Slovakia became independent nations. Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia. Crimea is in limbo as part of Ukraine. STRUCTURE - NATIONS

Nations and Nuances United Nations entities:
193 member states of UN plus The Vatican; 9 de facto independent states lacking general international recognition; 38 inhabited dependent territories; 5 special entities recognised by international treaties; Micronations: 68 of them worldwide, most tongue-in-cheek, others long lived and pretending to be serious: e.g. Sealand (1967), Seborga (954), and Perloja (1918- had army!). …and some of the others… Pheasant Island, Mount Athos monasteries, Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the UN building, consuls and embassies, airports, Unrepresented Nations and Peoples, piracies – e.g. Puntland state Somalia, etc), airport lounges, cruise ships in international waters. Sealand: A Maunsell Sea Fort known by the British as Rough’s Tower. Taken over in 1967 by Paddy Bates who declared it the micronation of Sealand and himself as King. Has no inhabitants now. Pheasant Island: Tiny island – now a condo - in the River Bidasoa on the border of France and Spain, established in 1659 by the Treaty of the Pyrenees and administered by both France and Spain. Mount Athos: Autonomous Monastic State of the Holy Mountain. Mount Athos is a mountain and peninsula in Macedonia. It’s home to 20 eastern orthodox monasteries. SMOM: Established in 1053 as a chivalrous order of the Roman Catholic Church. Has no territory but recognised by several countries as a stateless state with 13,000 volunteers worldwide and three “citizens”. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory.[12] Airport areas prior to clearing customs are International territories STRUCTURE - NATIONS

Just Cruisin’ A ship in a country’s inland waters is subject to the state, provincial, municipal or country’s laws. A ship within the 12 mile territorial limit is subject to country’s laws. A ship within 24 miles is subject to some national laws such as those related to smuggling. A ship beyond 24 miles is on the high seas and subject to the laws of the country of registry. Thus… A ship registered in The Netherlands could, legally, provide prostitution or euthansia services on the high seas. If registered in Amsterdam it could provide legal access to marijuana as well. Ships are subject to any civil law suits but usually the ticket fine prints liability away. In the past five years, 28 people have been lost overboard and not found. STRUCTURE - NATIONS

Uncontacted Peoples There are few truly uncontacted people left in the world – perhaps 150 tribes. Most are in Papua New Guinea and the Amazon. Those that exist have usually had dealings with ‘civilized’ humans and have not benefited from it so shun it. Unidentified indigenous tribe in Brazil’s Amazon. The Sentilese: North Sentinel Island in the Andaman Islands, part of India but isolated likely for over 60,000 years. To which “nation” do these people “belong”? Their wish is to belong to no one.

STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES

STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES
Failed States Are… De facto or de jure nations where central governance is too weak to have effective control over its territory and population. Failed (Fragile) States Index developed by the Fund for Peace think tank and Foreign Policy journal. Based on an index comprising three sets of twelve variables. Source: Fund for Peace at A failed state is a state whose central government is so weak or ineffective that it has little practical control over much of its territory. The level of control required to avoid being considered a failed state varies considerably amongst authorities. Furthermore, the declaration that a state has "failed" is generally controversial and, when made authoritatively, may carry significant geopolitical consequences. STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES

Failed State Index Criteria
Social Indicators: Mounting demographic pressures. Massive movement of refugees creating humanitarian emergencies. Legacy of vengeance seeking, group grievance, group violence. Chronic and sustained human flight. Economic Indicators: Uneven economic development along group lines. Sharp and/or severe economic decline. Political Indicators: Criminalization and/or delegitimization of the state. Progressive deterioration of public services. Suspension or arbitrary application of the rule of law. Widespread violation of human rights. Security apparatus operates as a state within a state. Rise of factionalised elites. Intervention of other states or external political actors. Nope, don’t have to remember these. Social Indicators I-1. Mounting Demographic Pressures I-2. Massive Movement of Refugees or Internally Displaced Persons creating Complex Humanitarian Emergencies I-3. Legacy of Vengeance-Seeking Group Grievance or Group Paranoia I-4. Chronic and Sustained Human Flight Economic Indicators I-5. Uneven Economic Development along Group Lines I-6. Sharp and/or Severe Economic Decline Political Indicators I-7. Criminalization and/or Delegitimization of the State I-8. Progressive Deterioration of Public Services I-9. Suspension or Arbitrary Application of the Rule of Law and Widespread Violation of Human Rights I-10. Security Apparatus Operates as a "State Within a State" I-11. Rise of Factionalized Elites I-12. Intervention of Other States or External Political Actors STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES

The Failed States Index 2010
STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES

Finland Mali FAILED FAILING STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES

FAILED FAILING STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES

Finland South Sudan Canada STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES

Consistent top ten membership of several countries year over year.
2005 Cote d'Ivoire Congo Sudan Iraq Somalia Sierra Leone Chad Yemen Liberia Haiti 2006 Sudan Congo Cote d'Ivoire Iraq Zimbabwe Chad Somalia Haiti Pakistan Afghanistan 2007 Sudan Iraq Somalia Zimbabwe Chad Cote d'Ivoire Congo Afghanistan Guinea Central African Rep. 2008 Somalia Sudan Zimbabwe Chad Iraq Congo Afghanistan Cote d'Ivoire Pakistan Central African Rep. 7/33 Nations 2/28 Nations 4/32 Nations 5/35 Nations Number of countries in Worst/worst three categories 2009 Somalia Zimbabwe Sudan Chad Congo Iraq Afghanistan Central African Rep. Guinea Pakistan 2010 Somalia Chad Sudan Zimbabwe Congo Afghanistan Iraq Central African Rep. Guinea Pakistan 2011 Somalia Chad Sudan Congo Haiti Zimbabwe Afghanistan Central African Rep. Iraq Cote d’Ivoire 2012 Somalia Congo Sudan Chad Zimbabwe Afghanistan Haiti Yemen Iraq Central African Rep. 4/37 Nations 4/37 Nations 2/35 Nations 2/33 Nations STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES

2006 Sudan Congo Cote d'Ivoire Iraq Zimbabwe Chad Somalia Haiti Pakistan Afghanistan 2007 Sudan Iraq Somalia Zimbabwe Chad Cote d'Ivoire Congo Afghanistan Guinea Central African Rep. 2008 Somalia Sudan Zimbabwe Chad Iraq Congo Afghanistan Cote d'Ivoire Pakistan Central African Rep. 2009 Somalia Zimbabwe Sudan Chad Congo Iraq Afghanistan Central African Rep. Guinea Pakistan 4/37 Nations 2/28 Nations 4/32 Nations 5/35 Nations Number of countries in Worst/worst three categories 2010 Somalia Chad Sudan Zimbabwe Congo Afghanistan Iraq Central African Rep. Guinea Pakistan 2011 Somalia Chad Sudan Congo Haiti Zimbabwe Afghanistan Central African Rep. Iraq Cote d’Ivoire 2012 Somalia Congo Sudan Chad Zimbabwe Afghanistan Haiti Yemen Iraq Central African Rep. 2013 Somalia Congo Sudan South Sudan Chad Yemen Afghanistan Haiti Central African Rep. Zimbabwe 4/37 Nations 2/35 Nations 2/33 Nations 4/31 Nations STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES

2007 Sudan Iraq Somalia Zimbabwe Chad Cote d'Ivoire Congo Afghanistan Guinea Central African Rep. 2008 Somalia Sudan Zimbabwe Chad Iraq Congo Afghanistan Cote d'Ivoire Pakistan Central African Rep. 2009 Somalia Zimbabwe Sudan Chad Congo Iraq Afghanistan Central African Rep. Guinea Pakistan 2010 Somalia Chad Sudan Zimbabwe Congo Afghanistan Iraq Central African Rep. Guinea Pakistan 4/32 Nations 5/35 Nations 4/37 Nations 4/37 Nations Number of countries in Worst/worst three categories 2011 Somalia Chad Sudan Congo Haiti Zimbabwe Afghanistan Central African Rep. Iraq Cote d’Ivoire 2012 Somalia Congo Sudan Chad Zimbabwe Afghanistan Haiti Yemen Iraq Central African Rep. 2013 Somalia Congo Sudan South Sudan Chad Yemen Afghanistan Haiti Central African Rep. Zimbabwe 2014 South Sudan Somalia Central African Rep. Congo Sudan Chad Afghanistan Yemen Haiti Pakistan 2/35 Nations 2/33 Nations 4/31 Nations 4/34 Nations STRUCTURE - FAILED STATES

R E G I O N S STRUCTURE - REGIONS

Regions What Regions Aren’t: Real. What Regions Are:
Convenient labels imposed by humans. Often overlapping. Defined by unique variables and criteria that often differ depending who’s defining, so subjective. Changeable over time and space. Specific to large and medium scale (i.e. no ‘regions’ in a city). Definition in geography is an area with unique characteristics, but there is little science in how “unique” gets defined; little of the objective, of the verifiable. For example SE Asia is a vast area of diverse political, ethnic, language, religion, economic, political and physical characteristics. It’s only claim is tautological – it is a region called SE Asia because it is in the SE part of Asia. Not very helpful, even then – for what’s “Asia”, because even here continents are losing their definitions as we come to know more about the macrogeology of the earth’s tectonic structure. Likewise, there is nothing unique about North America that allows it to lay claim to being a “region” the way geography would define them. It ranges from poles to tropics across plains and mountains, cultures and languages, economic and political systems. It is a construct of the Europeans who conquered the continent and its equally hetreogenous indigenous people. Not even physical characteristics hold up very well to scrutiny. The world of biomes can be said to have some physical objectivity defined by their characteristics of what can grow, these in turn governed by temperature and moisture – the energy regimes – of their areas. We have deserts and woodlands and forests and tundra and on and on… But even here the world is not to be pigeonholed so easily. Tectonic processes ensure that today’s biomes are just that – a fleeting characterization of geologic time that differs in extraordinary ways from 5, 50 or 500 million years ago. And a billion years ago the earth was an oxygen rich environment poisonous to virtually all creatures alive today much as 2 billion years ago it was an equally toxic oxygen poor world. So however we choose to define “regions”, make no mistake – they are human constructs and nothing more. And they occupy an even more fleeting moment than sturdier geologic ones. They exist because we say they do, and not because they do. STRUCTURE - REGIONS 36

Even macrogeology/biomes change over time and space.
World Regions Regions defined as areas with unique characteristics, but no objective way to define “unique”. E.G “Asia” vast area of diverse political, ethnic, language, religion, economic, political, physical attributes. “North America” little more than a label imposed by European conquerors. Even macrogeology/biomes change over time and space. What is desert now was tropical forest or ocean 5,000 or 5 million or 500 million years ago, and will be again. Definition in geography is an area with unique characteristics, but there is little science in how “unique” gets defined; little of the objective, of the verifiable. For example SE Asia is a vast area of diverse political, ethnic, language, religion, economic, political and physical characteristics. It’s only claim is tautological – it is a region called SE Asia because it is in the SE part of Asia. Not very helpful, even then – for what’s “Asia”, because even here continents are losing their definitions as we come to know more about the macrogeology of the earth’s tectonic structure. Likewise, there is nothing unique about North America that allows it to lay claim to being a “region” the way geography would define them. It ranges from poles to tropics across plains and mountains, cultures and languages, economic and political systems. It is a construct of the Europeans who conquered the continent and its equally hetreogenous indigenous people. Not even physical characteristics hold up very well to scrutiny. The world of biomes can be said to have some physical objectivity defined by their characteristics of what can grow, these in turn governed by temperature and moisture – the energy regimes – of their areas. We have deserts and woodlands and forests and tundra and on and on… But even here the world is not to be pigeonholed so easily. Tectonic processes ensure that today’s biomes are just that – a fleeting characterization of geologic time that differs in extraordinary ways from 5, 50 or 500 million years ago. And a billion years ago the earth was an oxygen rich environment poisonous to virtually all creatures alive today much as 2 billion years ago it was an equally toxic oxygen poor world. So however we choose to define “regions”, make no mistake – they are human constructs and nothing more. And they occupy an even more fleeting moment than sturdier geologic ones. They exist because we say they do, and not because they do. STRUCTURE - REGIONS 37

World Regions - a list of lists
UN (IGO) WHO (IGO) World Bank (IGO) Population Reference Bureau (INGO) US State Department (GO) External Affairs, Canada (GO) CIA Factbook (GO) National Geographic (Private) Different lists of regions exist depending on the needs – and sometimes whims – of the people creating those lists. Agencies such as the PRB, UN, IMF, WB, WHO, etc all devise ways of classifying coujntries (themselves strange constructs) dpending on what they see. First second and third worlds were created for one reason and shifted in interpretation for another set of reasons. Developing and developed countries, and HIC, UMIC, LIC etc aso exist, regions comprised of countries and definined by economics. The bases of these lists can lie in physical, human geography, by trade, history and a raft of other criteria. We’ll look at some of these lists of regions now> STRUCTURE - REGIONS 38

World Regions According To…
USE THIS LIST FOR YOUR ESSAY United Nations - IGO WORLD MACRO REGIONS: Caribbean Central America, South America, Northern America Eastern Africa, Middle Africa, Northern Africa, Southern Africa, Western Africa Eastern Asia, South-central Asia, Western Asia, South-eastern Asia, Eastern Europe, Northern Europe, Southern Europe, Western Europe Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia Australia & New Zealand UN at Australia & New Zealand Caribbean Central America, South America, Northern America Eastern Africa, Middle Africa, Northern Africa, Southern Africa, Western Africa Eastern Asia, South-central Asia, Western Asia, South-eastern Asia, Eastern Europe, Northern Europe, Southern Europe, Western Europe Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia USE THIS LIST FOR YOUR ESSAY STRUCTURE - REGIONS 39

World Regions According To… World Health Organisation (WHO) - IGO
African Region (46 countries) European Region (53 countries) Eastern Mediterranean Region (21 countries) Region of the Americas (35 countries) South-East Asia Region (11 countries) Western Pacific Region (27 countries) WHO at STRUCTURE - REGIONS 40

World Bank - IGO Africa Sub Saharan Africa Middle East and North Africa East Asia and Pacific Europe and Central Asia Euro Area Latin America and the Caribbean North America South Asia Socio-economic: Low Income Middle Income Hi Income World Bank at STRUCTURE - REGIONS 41

World Regions According To… PRB World Data Sheet (INGO)
Geographic: Africa (north, west, east, middle, south) North America (Canada, U.S.) Latin America (Central, Caribbean, South) Asia (West, South Central, Central, East) Europe (Northern, Western, Eastern, Southern) Oceania Socio-economic: More developed countries Less developed countries Less developed countries excluding China Least developed countries PRB list STRUCTURE - REGIONS 42

World Regions According To… U.S. State Department (GO)
African Affairs East Asian and Pacific Affairs European Affairs Near Eastern Affairs New Independent States of the Former USSR South Asian Affairs Western Hemisphere Affairs USSD list at African Affairs East Asian and Pacific Affairs European Affairs Near Eastern Affairs New Independent States of the Former USSR South Asian Affairs Western Hemisphere Affairs STRUCTURE - REGIONS 43

World Regions According To… Foreign Affairs, Canada (GO)
North America Latin America and the Caribbean Afghanistan Task Force Europe, Middle East and the Maghreb Asia & Africa External Affairs Canada at STRUCTURE - REGIONS 44

CIA Factbook (GO) The Office of Asian Pacific, Latin American, and African Analysis - Asia, Latin America, and Sub-Saharan Africa. The Office of Iraq Analysis The Office of Near Eastern and South Asian Analysis - Middle Eastern and North African, South Asian nations of India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. The Office of Russian and European Analysis provides intelligence support on a large number of countries that have long been of crucial importance to the United States as allies or as adversaries and are likely to continue to occupy a key place in US national security policy. CIA at STRUCTURE - REGIONS 45

World Regions According To… National Geographic (Private)
Australia and Oceania Caucasus and the Middle East Central America, South America, U.S., Canada, & Mexico Central Asia, Eastern Asia, Southern Asia Eastern Europe, Western Europe Northeastern Africa, Northwestern Africa, Southern Africa West Indies National geographic at Australia and Oceania From the vast dry bushland of western Australia to the dense rain forest of the tiny Solomon Islands, Oceania also includes mountains, jungles, and swamplands. Caucasus and the Middle East The home base for Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, the Middle East has been the fighting ground for major religious battles for centuries. Central America While civil wars and natural disasters have plagued many nations in this region, the rich and vibrant cultures of its people endure. Central Asia These diverse nations are bound by the harshness of their landscape and a shared history. Eastern Asia Densely populated East Asia is home to a wide array of languages and religious beliefs. Eastern Europe As tourism grows and more nations in east Europe join the European Union, there is great hope the region will flourish and prosper. Northeastern Africa Explore Northeast Africa's stunning natural and human-made features from Mount Kilimanjaro to the Great Pyramids of Egypt. Northwestern Africa More than 40 cultures thrive in northwest Africa, and a mix of French, English, Arabic, and tribal languages are spoken by its inhabitants. South America From the majestic Andean mountain chain to the mighty Amazon River, South America has nearly unlimited potential. Southern Africa Most of sub-Saharan Africa is savanna, home to the elephants, lions, and zebras for which the continent is renowned. Southern Asia There is great religious diversity in this populous part of the world: India is 81 percent Hindu but also has 126 million Muslims. U.S., Canada, and Mexico From Canada's subarctic climates, across the flat plains of the American Midwest, down to Mexico's mountainous jungle, get to know these North American countries. West Indies The islands of the Caribbean Sea are home to a mixture of native, European, African, and Asian cultures. Western Europe From the frozen tundra of northern Scandinavia to the sunny shores of Spain and Italy, western Europe offers extremes of temperature and culture. STRUCTURE - REGIONS 46

So what are regions then?
However we choose to define “regions”, make no mistake – they are human constructs and nothing more. And they occupy an even more fleeting moment than somewhat sturdier geologic ones. They exist because we say they do, and not because they do. STRUCTURE - REGIONS

United Nations World Regions for Essay
Australia & New Zealand Caribbean Central America, South America, Northern America Eastern Africa, Middle Africa, Northern Africa, Southern Africa, Western Africa Eastern Asia, South-central Asia, Western Asia, South-eastern Asia, Eastern Europe, Northern Europe, Southern Europe, Western Europe Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia STRUCTURE - REGIONS

And then there’s The World According to the United States, (well, sort of…)
STRUCTURE - REGIONS

Regional Geography of Australia Aussie Style
STRUCTURE - REGIONS

Regionalizing the World by Population Size
Isodemographic Map of World Population Countries are scaled in size according to their populations. STRUCTURE - REGIONS

Isodemographic Map of World GDP
Regionalizing the World by Income Isodemographic Map of World GDP Countries are scaled in size according to their GDP. STRUCTURE - REGIONS

HISTORY - PROCESS - PREGLOBAL
How we got where we are. HISTORY - PROCESS - PREGLOBAL

The Fundamentals of Change
Mercantilism + Renaissance = Revolution Money + Freedom A New World Order HISTORY - PROCESS - PREGLOBAL

Fundamental shift in how money was earned and who owned it.
Mercantilism + Renaissance = Revolution Refers to an era when trade became the principal means of wealth generation. Begins in 12th century with opening of trade routes by crusades. By 15th to 17th century Age of Exploration leads to expanded resource base and trade routes. By 18th century immense surplus of capital generated in Europe through trade, along with banks and currency. → the creation of a wealthy merchant class that contrasts with the “landed gentry” of the Middle Ages. Fundamental shift in how money was earned and who owned it. Mercantilism + Renaissance = Revolution Refers to an era when trade became the principal means of wealth generation. Begins in 12th century with opening of trade routes by crusades. By 15th to 17th century Age of Exploration leads to expanded resource base and trade routes. By 18th century immense surplus of capital generated in Europe. Leads to the creation of a wealthy merchant class that contrasts with the “landed gentry” of the Middle Ages. Fundamental shift in how money was earned and who owned it. HISTORY - PROCESS - PREGLOBAL

Fundamental shift in human world view.
Mercantilism + Renaissance = Revolution Transition from medieval to modern history starting in the early 14th century. Across 15th to 19th centuries the Ages of Reason and Enlightenment were in full bloom in Europe. Characterised by the emancipation of scientific thought and methods of inquiry, → discovery of the scientific principles necessary for the development/application of machinery. Freedom from religious interpretations of nature and social behaviour → critical reappraisal of the political economy and the development of democratic capitalism in most of Europe. Fundamental shift in human world view. Mercantilism + Renaissance = Revolution Transition from medieval to modern history starting in the early 14th century. Across 15th to 19th centuries the Ages of Reason and Enlightenment were in full bloom in Europe. Characterised by the emancipation of scientific thought and methods of inquiry, leading to discovery of the scientific principles necessary for the development/application of machinery. Freedom from religious interpretations of nature and social behaviour leads to critical reappraisal of the political economy and the development of democratic capitalism in most of Europe. Fundamental shift in human world view. HISTORY - PROCESS - PREGLOBAL

Result is a new type of political economy – capitalist democracy.
Mercantilism + Renaissance = Revolution Transition from a chiefly agrarian society to an industrial society, early 18th century, U.K. Characterised by the application of scientific principles and inanimate power sources to the development and use of industrial machinery in producing goods. Creates a new division of labour: factory workers who produce and consume goods, → market that is consumption driven. Starts process of urbanisation, growth of personal & national wealth → the creation of public institutions. Result is a new type of political economy – capitalist democracy. HISTORY - PROCESS - PREGLOBAL

A Short History of Globalisation
For our purposes three periods to discuss: Pre- 1945 @ : growth, innovation, expansion : risk taking → crash → sobering reality 1945 to 1973 Global institutions → prosperity → naiveté 1973 to present mid 70s to mid 80s – shock and pessimism mid 80s to mid 90s – recovery and restructuring mid 90s to mid 2008 – growth and greed post 2008 – sobering reality (again)? Started about 1870 until 1914 then 1918 until 1945 1870 until 1914 was a period of growth in the movement of capital, labour and trade primarily due to innovations in transportation and communications technology. World War caused cessation in growth and movement, and The Great Depression ( ) and its protectionist policies stifled growth and international trade afterwards, especially in the United States. Was perhaps the first stage of globalisation though this would be disputed as merely a continuation of internationalisation and economic liberalism. Period of growth and prosperity for most of the western world’s nations under Keynesian macro economic policies and Bretton Woods institutions. Starts with Bretton Woods Agreement (1944) that rebuilt the nations devastated by the conflict, most especially Germany and Japan. Post war era divided into two phases, and 1974-now, with the oil crisis marking the dividing line. Economic slowdown in the west accompanied by rebirth of free market economic thinking and beginning of the end of Keynesian policies. Oil crisis raised energy prices for manufacturing and slowed post war economic growth from an average 8% to 4% and less. Principal changes were political, economic and social. Politically, globe divided into first world (developed western nations), second world (Soviet Bloc), and third world (the developing world) many of these latter run by corrupt puppet governments serving either first or second world geopolitical goals. Economically, first world nations except for the U.S. were bankrupt and devastated, Soviet Bloc nations were developing their own planned economies, and third world nations were being created almost daily and being left to their own devices to survive. Debt, dependency and corruption increased. Socially, the world was drawing together as a result of wartime communications technology and military travel. Wartime destruction, memories of the Depression and of the Versailles Treaty encouraged the Bretton Woods Agreement, the Marshall Plan, and the GATT. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) to regulate currency and facilitate payments, pegging currencies to the US$, which in turn was pegged to the gold standard. Bretton Woods (1944): Created… The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (The World Bank) initially to handle capital transfers for rebuilding war torn economies. Later the World Bank becomes the world’s banker, facilitating loans to developing countries and creating a huge debt load for many of them that now plays a role in dictating their economic policy. The Marshall Plan ( ): Named for George C. Marshall, the US Secretary of State, channeled US$17 billion (US$100 billion 2006 dollars) into war torn economies in Europe and Asia. Notably most resources went to West Germany and Japan in order to ‘win the peace’ and not repeat Versailles Treaty reparations blunders. Also served to create a ring of containment around what was perceived as the growing military and political threat of the Soviet The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, 1947): Designed to prevent the protectionist policies of the post-Depression 1930s from returning and stifling trade. Based on the idea that the free flow of capital and goods was essential for a healthy national and global economy. Signatories to the Agreement were to reap the benefits of freer trade among themselves, while still having trade protections in the form of tariffs afforded to fledgling economies. Since 1995 superseded by the World Trade Organisation. A Brief Summary of the Period Pre 1945  1974-Now The period 1945 to 1974 demonstrated remarkable growth rates for developed western economies, especially Germany, Japan, and the US, averaging 8% annually. Trade increased more rapidly than production as the big three economies sold their products and, towards the end of the period, began to produce offshore thus creating the international division of labour. As well, a few smaller newly industrialising economies began to prosper and trade – notably Korea, Taiwan and Singapore – based on their comparative advantage on labour costs. Many 3rd world nations are born but languish economically and socially. Post Oil Crisis Pessimism – 1974 until 1990 History has yet to “officially” characterise the past three decades but we can possibly see it as: as oil crisis raises questions about the stability of the western developed nations economies - a decade of shock and pessimism as developing nations begin to flex their emerging industrial muscle as terror becomes a recognised weapon to be used on third parties for territorial goals as the old first, second, third world geopolitical boundaries begin to blur a decade of recovery and restructuring - as communications revolution begins and revolutionises the financial services sector - as developed nations react, restructure their industries, go offshore, develop the TNC model - as territories restructure and old seemingly stable power blocs fracture (e.g. USSR, Western alliances, Berlin Wall falls) a decade of growth and greed - driven by growth and lack of and/or changing regulation in financial services sector - as credit crunch begins to evolve - as the TNC model matures and utilises offshore production facilities for western consumption - as terror becomes a means of achieving political, economic and doctrinaire goals - as economic growth strips resources and creates runaway environmental problems a decade of sobering reality ? - realisation that globalised economy of production/consumption is intimately interlocked Realisation that environmental problems are real and dangerously close to unstoppable - realisation that economy and environment cannot be decoupled, and thus associated realisation that global institutions (G8, WTO, UN security Council) are counter productive, and - realisation that solution to environment mean brakes on economy: but how? - realization that the nationalism brought about by territorial growth makes solution difficult to achieve but points up the need for new and fundamental institutions to nonetheless try Shock and Pessimism Mid 70s to mid 80s Optimism, growth and prosperity of post war years ends with the oil crisis of 1974. Keynesian economic policy stumbles and eventually falls. Rapidly changing technology in the financial sector particularly, accelerates the injections and leakages in the economy that it controls. They begin to move too fast for the policies to have much effect, or worse they come too late in the cycle and have the opposite effect. Prosperity in western nations increasingly becomes based on credit, and western banks increasingly find themselves becoming vulnerable to defaulted loans in the third world. As a result the west finds itself vulnerable to debt from inside and outside. and competition from the development of newly industrialising nations who leveraged the competitive advantage in low labour costs against the increasingly obsolete industrial infrastructure of the west. As well, in 1971 the US changed from the gold standard as a metric of its paper money wealth, to GDP or production. This means that its prosperity is now measured in how good it is at producing goods – just about when offshore competition starts to increase. Developing countries took on huge debt loads to address balance of power and balance of payments, and find themselves defaulting to western banks. Debt and related political problems of the developing world begin to impact the financial institutions of the West. Western response was to address their vulnerabilities. Restructuring and Recovery Mid 80s to early 90s The corporate west, led by the US, diversified and globalised their production, finances and distribution networks taking advantage of the same competitive advantage that the newly industrialising countries were using. They created an international division of labour and through partnerships, mergers, and acquisitions came to control the very foreign companies (and even countries) that were a threat to the western economies. Western foreign policy increasingly becomes a tool for economic growth in the west. Countries shifted to the political and economic right, adopting free market systems and monetarist policies – and the more unfortunate social and cultural attributes of the right: anti-intellectualism, intolerance, anti-secularism, and the view that might is right. In the non-capitalist 2nd world cracks in the planned economies of the world become too big to hide or repair and they too adopt free market approaches and political devolution creating the third wave of de-colonialisation since the industrial revolution. Mid 90s to 2008 Crisis Growth and Greed With the stage set through free trade movements, conservative policies, monetarist economies, and increasingly economically based foreign policy, the development of the transnational corporation proceeds quickly. The virtually uncontrolled growth in the financial sector, and the shift towards the free market and conservative politics creates an almost global laissez faire economic system., which of course is met by opposition from NGOs, from smaller nations and groups of nations, and from smaller trade blocs. By the end of the 1990s the laissez faire attitude of the global financial sector unraveled in the Asian Meltdown that eventually threatened the whole global economic system – this is one of the great untold excesses of capitalism in the past 20 years. As well, debt laden developing countries were brought under the control of global financial institutions such as the World bank and the International Monetary Fund and were told: adopt free market and monetarist policies or else. As well, of course, economic and social turmoil in many of these countries (best seen in South American economies) provided a perfect scene for change. Many of these economies adopted the same or similar conservative policies as the western nations in order to recover from the hyperinflation and hyper unemployment plaguing them. But, by 1999 at the WTO meeting in Seattle, the anti-globalisation movement begins in response to the near meltdown of the global economy. HISTORY - PROCESS - POSTWAR

1918-1945 (complicated hiatus):
Pre 1945  1973-Now 1870 until 1914: Growth of capital, labour, and trade. Innovations in transportation & communications technology. (complicated hiatus): WW I ( ) caused cessation in growth & trade, then huge growth (roaring twenties) until ended by... ... the Great Depression ( ) & after … ... protectionist policies stifled growth and international trade until after WW2. Was perhaps the first stage of globalisation though this would be disputed as merely a continuation of internationalization and economic liberalism. Started about 1870 until 1914 then 1918 until 1945 1870 until 1914 was a period of growth in the movement of capital, labour and trade primarily due to innovations in transportation and communications technology. World War caused cessation in growth and movement, and The Great Depression ( ) and its protectionist policies stifled growth and international trade afterwards, especially in the United States. Was perhaps the first stage of globalisation though this would be disputed as merely a continuation of internationalisation and economic liberalism. HISTORY - PROCESS - POSTWAR

Pre 1945  1973-Now Period of unprecedented growth and prosperity in the west under the Keynesian model. Birth of many impoverished nations. Politically, world divides into 1st, 2nd, and 3rd worlds. Economically, each has very different characteristics. Socially, creation of the ‘global village’ of McLuhan. Three global economic structures: 1. Bretton Woods: World Bank, IMF, gold to currency. 2. Marshall Plan: $14b to rebuild Germany and Japan. 3. GATT: Free trade among signatories. Watershed: 1973 oil crisis Cessation of western growth and prosperity. Rebirth of free market thinking. Post war era divided into two phases, and 1974-now, with the oil crisis marking the dividing line. Starts with Bretton Woods Agreement (1944) that rebuilt the nations devastated by the conflict, most especially Germany and Japan. Period of growth and prosperity for most of the western world’s nations under Keynesian macro economic policies and Bretton Woods institutions. Oil crisis raised energy prices for manufacturing and slowed post war economic growth from an average 8% to 4% and less. Economic slowdown in the west accompanied by rebirth of free market economic thinking and beginning of the end of Keynesian policies. Principal changes were political, economic and social. Politically, globe divided into first world (developed western nations), second world (Soviet Bloc), and third world (the developing world) many of these latter run by corrupt puppet governments serving either first or second world geopolitical goals. Economically, first world nations except for the U.S. were bankrupt and devastated, Soviet Bloc nations were developing their own planned economies, and third world nations were being created almost daily and being left to their own devices to survive. Debt, dependency and corruption increased. Socially, the world was drawing together as a result of wartime communications technology and military travel. Wartime destruction, memories of the Depression and of the Versailles Treaty encouraged the Bretton Woods Agreement, the Marshall Plan, and the GATT. Bretton Woods (1944): Created… The International Monetary Fund (IMF) to regulate currency and facilitate payments, pegging currencies to the US$, which in turn was pegged to the gold standard. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (The World Bank) initially to handle capital transfers for rebuilding war torn economies. Later the World Bank becomes the world’s banker, facilitating loans to developing countries and creating a huge debt load for many of them that now plays a role in dictating their economic policy. The Marshall Plan ( ): Named for George C. Marshall, the US Secretary of State, channeled US$17 billion (US$100 billion 2006 dollars) into war torn economies in Europe and Asia. Notably most resources went to West Germany and Japan in order to ‘win the peace’ and not repeat Versailles Treaty reparations blunders. Also served to create a ring of containment around what was perceived as the growing military and political threat of the Soviet The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, 1947): Designed to prevent the protectionist policies of the post-Depression 1930s from returning and stifling trade. Based on the idea that the free flow of capital and goods was essential for a healthy national and global economy. Signatories to the Agreement were to reap the benefits of freer trade among themselves, while still having trade protections in the form of tariffs afforded to fledgling economies. Since 1995 superseded by the World Trade Organisation. HISTORY - PROCESS - POSTWAR

Post Oil Crisis Pessimism – 1973 until 2000
Pre 1945  1973-Now Post Oil Crisis Pessimism – 1973 until 2000 History has yet to “officially” characterize the past four decades but we can possibly see it as: - a decade of shock and pessimism - a decade of recovery and restructuring - a decade of growth and greed - perhaps now a decade of sobering reality? Post Oil Crisis Pessimism – 1974 until 1990 History has yet to “officially” characterise the past three decades but we can possibly see it as: - a decade of shock and pessimism as oil crisis raises questions about the stability of the western developed nations economies as developing nations begin to flex their emerging industrial muscle as the old first, second, third world geopolitical boundaries begin to blur as terror becomes a recognised weapon to be used on third parties for territorial goals a decade of recovery and restructuring - as developed nations react, restructure their industries, go offshore, develop the TNC model - as communications revolution begins and revolutionises the financial services sector - as territories restructure and old seemingly stable power blocs fracture (e.g. USSR, Western alliances, Berlin Wall falls) a decade of growth and greed - driven by growth and lack of and/or changing regulation in financial services sector - as the TNC model matures and utilises offshore production facilities for western consumption - as credit crunch begins to evolve - as terror becomes a means of achieving political, economic and doctrinaire goals - as economic growth strips resources and creates runaway environmental problems a decade of sobering reality ? Realisation that environmental problems are real and dangerously close to unstoppable - realisation that globalised economy of production/consumption is intimately interlocked - realisation that economy and environment cannot be decoupled, and thus - realisation that solution to environment mean brakes on economy: but how? associated realisation that global institutions (G8, WTO, UN security Council) are counter productive, and - realization that the nationalism brought about by territorial growth makes solution difficult to achieve but points up the need for new and fundamental institutions to nonetheless try HISTORY - PROCESS - POSTWAR

Mid 70s to mid 80s - Shock and Pessimism
Pre 1945  1973-Now Mid 70s to mid 80s - Shock and Pessimism Optimism, growth and prosperity of post war years ends, Keynesian economic policy stumbles and eventually fails. Western nations find themselves vulnerable to debt and the development of newly industrialising nations. U.S. had changed from gold standard for its dollar to production as measure of wealth – increased competition and obsolescence. Developing countries took on huge debt loads trying to address balance of power and balance of payments. Debt and related political problems of the developing world begin to impact the financial institutions of the West. Western response was to address their vulnerabilities. Mid 70s to mid 80s Shock and Pessimism - a decade of shock and pessimism as oil crisis raises questions about the stability of the western developed nations economies as developing nations begin to flex their emerging industrial muscle as the old first, second, third world geopolitical boundaries begin to blur as terror becomes a recognised weapon to be used on third parties for territorial goals Optimism, growth and prosperity of post war years ends with the oil crisis of 1974. Keynesian economic policy stumbles and eventually falls. Rapidly changing technology in the financial sector particularly, accelerates the injections and leakages in the economy that it controls. They begin to move too fast for the policies to have much effect, or worse they come too late in the cycle and have the opposite effect. Prosperity in western nations increasingly becomes based on credit, and western banks increasingly find themselves becoming vulnerable to defaulted loans in the third world. As a result the west finds itself vulnerable to debt from inside and outside. and competition from the development of newly industrialising nations who leveraged the competitive advantage in low labour costs against the increasingly obsolete industrial infrastructure of the west. As well, in 1971 the US changed from the gold standard as a metric of its paper money wealth, to GDP or production. This means that its prosperity is now measured in how good it is at producing goods – just about when offshore competition starts to increase. Developing countries took on huge debt loads to address balance of power and balance of payments, and find themselves defaulting to western banks. Debt and related political problems of the developing world begin to impact the financial institutions of the West. Western response was to address their vulnerabilities. HISTORY - PROCESS - POSTWAR

Pre 1945  1973-Now Mid 80s to early 90s - Restructuring and Recovery The corporate west diversifies, globalises and modernises. Corporations create international division of labour and come to control foreign companies. Foreign policy increasingly becomes economic policy driven by TNCs. Financial sector becomes a driving force in wealth creation. Countries shifted to the political, economic and social right, adopting free market, deregulatory, monetarist policies. Cracks in the planned economies of the world become too big to hide or repair – Soviet de-colonialisation follows. Mid 80s to early 90s Restructuring and Recovery a decade of recovery and restructuring - as developed nations react, restructure their industries, go offshore, develop the TNC model - as communications revolution begins and revolutionises the financial services sector - as territories restructure and old seemingly stable power blocs fracture (e.g. USSR, Western alliances, Berlin Wall falls) The corporate west, led by the US, diversified and globalised their production, finances and distribution networks taking advantage of the same competitive advantage that the newly industrialising countries were using. They created an international division of labour and through partnerships, mergers, and acquisitions came to control the very foreign companies (and even countries) that were a threat to the western economies. Western foreign policy increasingly becomes a tool for economic growth in the west. Countries shifted to the political and economic right, adopting free market systems and monetarist policies – and the more unfortunate social and cultural attributes of the right: anti-intellectualism, intolerance, anti-secularism, and the view that might is right. In the non-capitalist 2nd world cracks in the planned economies of the world become too big to hide or repair and they too adopt free market approaches and political devolution creating the third wave of de-colonialisation since the industrial revolution. HISTORY - PROCESS - POSTWAR

Mid 90s to 2008 Crisis - Growth and Greed
Pre 1945  1973-Now Mid 90s to 2008 Crisis - Growth and Greed Development of transnationals, high growth in the financial sector, shift towards free market, deregulation and right wing politics creates a global laissez faire economic system. End of 1990s, the laissez faire attitude of the global financial sector unraveled in the Asian Meltdown that eventually threatened the whole global economic system. Debt laden developing countries brought under control of global financial institutions whose loans were tied to the adoption of free market, monetarist policies. 1999 WTO meeting in Seattle: opposition to globalisation begins in response to meltdown of the global economy. Mid 90s to 2008 Crisis Growth and Greed a decade of growth and greed - driven by growth and lack of and/or changing regulation in financial services sector - as the TNC model matures and utilises offshore production facilities for western consumption - as credit crunch begins to evolve - as terror becomes a means of achieving political, economic and doctrinaire goals - as economic growth strips resources and creates runaway environmental problems With the stage set through free trade movements, conservative policies, monetarist economies, and increasingly economically based foreign policy, the development of the transnational corporation proceeds quickly. The virtually uncontrolled growth in the financial sector, and the shift towards the free market and conservative politics creates an almost global laissez faire economic system., which of course is met by opposition from NGOs, from smaller nations and groups of nations, and from smaller trade blocs. By the end of the 1990s the laissez faire attitude of the global financial sector unraveled in the Asian Meltdown that eventually threatened the whole global economic system – this is one of the great untold excesses of capitalism in the past 20 years. As well, debt laden developing countries were brought under the control of global financial institutions such as the World bank and the International Monetary Fund and were told: adopt free market and monetarist policies or else. As well, of course, economic and social turmoil in many of these countries (best seen in South American economies) provided a perfect scene for change. Many of these economies adopted the same or similar conservative policies as the western nations in order to recover from the hyperinflation and hyper unemployment plaguing them. But, by 1999 at the WTO meeting in Seattle, the anti-globalisation movement begins in response to the near meltdown of the global economy. HISTORY - PROCESS - POSTWAR

Where We Are - or Where Are We?
Post 2008 Crisis - A Decade of Sobering Reality? Still too close to this period to know for sure what has happened let alone where it is going. The west has suffered from an economic crisis of Depression proportions, and now faces an unprecedented sovereign debt crisis, yet seems paralyzed to do anything to end it. Meanwhile it still focuses on its oil problems in the Middle East, and on terrorism in Afghanistan, Pakistan and home grown as the real economic history is being made by China and India. And where economic history goes, political history follows. a decade of sobering reality ? Realisation that environmental problems are real and dangerously close to unstoppable - realisation that globalised economy of production/consumption is intimately interlocked - realisation that economy and environment cannot be decoupled, and thus - realisation that solution to environment mean brakes on economy: but how? associated realisation that global institutions (G8, WTO, UN security Council) are counter productive, and - realization that the nationalism brought about by territorial growth makes solution difficult to achieve but points up the need for new and fundamental institutions to nonetheless try HISTORY - PROCESS - POSTWAR

And then there’s the environment. An equally obvious crisis.
And an equally paralyzed response. But more on this later. a decade of sobering reality ? Realisation that environmental problems are real and dangerously close to unstoppable - realisation that globalised economy of production/consumption is intimately interlocked - realisation that economy and environment cannot be decoupled, and thus - realisation that solution to environment mean brakes on economy: but how? associated realisation that global institutions (G8, WTO, UN security Council) are counter productive, and - realization that the nationalism brought about by territorial growth makes solution difficult to achieve but points up the need for new and fundamental institutions to nonetheless try HISTORY - PROCESS - POSTWAR

Urbanisation, Industrialisation, Demographic Transition
Relationships between these 3 processes shape modern societies. Is a cause/effect cycle where all elements must stay synchronized for economic development to occur. For the developed world this has occurred over the past 100+ years. For developing nations, they have occurred over a year period - or are in the process of occurring. →developmental problems for virtually all newly industrializing nations. Relationships between industrialization, urbanization, and demographic change very important in shaping societies. Processes are linked in a cause/effect cycle where all elements have to stay synchronized for economic development to occur. For western nations (the developed world) these synchronized processes have occurred over the past 100+ years. For developing nations, they have occurred over a much shorter period of time – about years - or are in the process of occurring. This has led to developmental problems for virtually all newly industrializing nations. URBANISATION, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC CHANGE MODEL

The Process of Becoming Urban
Urban areas are not just a matter of the form they take but also of the processes that give rise to them. They are points of economic and demographic transformation; nodes in the global network of interaction. They evolve over time in response to economic and technological transformations as we convert resources into lifestyles Had cities for 10,000 years but urbanized for years. Urban areas are not just a matter of the form they take but also of the processes that give rise to them. Urban areas are also not just collections of people but points of economic and demographic transformation, nodes in the global network for interaction. They also evolve over time in response to economic and technological transformations. We humans were not always an urban species – we became such in response to major transformations in the way we convert resources into lifestyles. URBANISATION, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC CHANGE MODEL

Urban Growth versus Urbanisation Population Growth Rates/Share
Total Population Growth Rates/Share Rural Urban 10,000ya 1700s Time URBANISATION, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC CHANGE MODEL

Urban Growth versus Urbanisation Population Growth Rates/Share
Total Population Growth Rates/Share Rural Urban 1700s Present Time URBANISATION, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC CHANGE MODEL

Urban Share of Population increasing levels, high rates
Urbanisation Stages 100% Terminal Stage high levels, low rates 80% Urban Share of Population Growth Stage increasing levels, high rates 20% Initial Stage (low levels, low rates 0% 10,000ya To 1700 (depends on country) Present Time URBANISATION, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC CHANGE MODEL

URBANISATION, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC CHANGE MODEL
Natural Increase Demographic Transition Model postulates four stages of demographic change premised upon the interplay of birth and death rates and resulting population change. URBANISATION, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC CHANGE MODEL 72

Economic transition reflects the changing employment profile for sectors of the economy and how people earn a living. URBANISATION, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC CHANGE MODEL 73

Urbanization (urban transition) is the process wherein a predominantly rural population migrates to become predominantly urban one. URBANISATION, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC CHANGE MODEL 74

The stages of each transition must more or less synchronize for economic development to occur. URBANISATION, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC CHANGE MODEL 75

Space, Geography, Territory

Space, Geography, Territory
Territorial Implications: More and more nations from 1945 as decolonialisation occurs – 56 in 1945 to 193 in 2013. Geographical Implications: More complex culture, language, social, religious, economic, legal, boundary landscapes to navigate. Spatial Implications: Development of Global Village has led to rapid movement of ideas, money, people, problems, conflicts, both because and in spite of more nations. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY

The Global Village Marshall McLuhan, technology and the global village (Gutenberg Galaxy, 1962). Information, ideas, attitudes travel at the speed of light though mass media. ‘Reduces’ the size of the earth to that of the village where everyone knows everyone else’s business. Results in the demonstration effect and societal homogenization. Darker side of the global village: Darknet, cyber crime, terror, surveillance, sex tourism, human trafficking, pandemics threat. Marshall McLuhan used the term global village to describe the effects of mass media on distance; now the term has come to mean the effects of communications technology. Information, ideas, attitudes travel at the speed of light and in doing so reduce the size of the earth to that of the village. Everyone knows everyone else’s business - and they may not like what they know. Knowing how the other half lives leads to the demonstration effect and the homogenization of societies begins. Darker side of the global village is disease, terror, resource exploitation, underdevelopment, and the usurpation of democracy by the growing power of the TNC SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY

Also means, for our purposes: … and thus more ways to circumvent them:
The Global Village(s) Also means, for our purposes: more and smaller nations, and as a result… … more borders and boundaries… … more laws, more rules … … more corruption. … and thus more ways to circumvent them: Increase in number of sectoral and regional blocs. Sophistication of financial sector. Communications and technology innovations. Which in turn leads to: More channels for disease and contraband. More intra and inter regional conflict. More disenfranchised groups, leading to… … more terrorism. Marshall McLuhan used the term global village to describe the effects of mass media on distance; now the term has come to mean the effects of communications technology. Information, ideas, attitudes travel at the speed of light and in doing so reduce the size of the earth to that of the village. Everyone knows everyone else’s business - and they may not like what they know. Knowing how the other half lives leads to the demonstration effect and the homogenization of societies begins. Darker side of the global village is disease, terror, resource exploitation, underdevelopment, and the usurpation of democracy by the growing power of the TNC SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY

Recent Historical Reasons for the Global Village…
Technology and transportation advances started during and after WW2: radar/radio technology, computing/data capture, visualization technology, weather prediction, nav systems, sonar, etc. Transportation technology improved significantly. Large global movements of people (military, refugees, migration). Rapid resource extraction, production & consumption. Growing number of nations → new geopolitical interest and often aggressive foreign policy initiatives. Tourism and its infrastructure also begins to expand rapidly. Technology and transportation advances started in earnest after WW2 in part because of it Radar and radio technology, computing, data capture, visualization technology, weather prediction, flight control and navigation systems, sonar, computing, etc People (mostly armed forces) moved around the world and saw other cultures, and vice versa – e.g. the “Cargo” cults of the Pacific Resource extraction grew rapidly as west required raw materials and as transportation technology improved with containers and bulk carriers The idea of nations having geopolitical interest in controlling other nations grows, and, coupled with the growth of new nations waiting to be influenced, leads to new and often aggressive foreign policy initiatives Tourism also begins to expand rapidly along with the infrastructure to accommodate it SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY

Reasons for wanting to pursue nationhood include:
Why Be A Nation Anyway? Reasons for wanting to pursue nationhood include: Virtual abandonment of colonies to fend for themselves after WW2, leading to... Establishment of corrupt governance → internal strife and civil war, and threatening ↔ neighbors. Excesses of colonialism and later corporate exploitation leading to … Environmental degradation and health threats. Well intentioned development initiatives actually lead to dependency, poverty, inequality. All of which take place in a compressed time line compared to developed world.

The Territorial Imperative – Robert Ardrey
Robert Ardrey (1966): There is an imperative (innate drive) among all animals for territory. Security Establish, control, extend, protect space. Sustenance Resources, space to grow, population growth. Sociality Social interaction (or not) with like-minded individuals. Self Personal/social identity → terroir(ism?), also → private property, consumerism, ownership. Security: The ability to control space is fundamental to all other imperatives Explicitly, as in establishing, extending and protecting boundaries Implicitly as in having enough space in which to “hide” or in having a territory that is difficult to gain or traverse Sustenance: The need obtain enough resources to survive and prosper The need to have space to sustain mental and physical health The need to have space to grow the population Sociality: The need to have enough room to allow social interaction (including not interacting!) Includes having a big enough area for a population to exist with which to interact Constrained enough that the population you are interacting with is the same as you Self: The need to control enough space to provide personal and group identity This leads to the concept of ‘terroir’ or being ‘connected’ to a particular piece of land Extension of this in western economic philosophy to private property, ownership and consumerism where identity becomes vested in property SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY

Ardrey’s Territorial Imperative Summing Up
The innate desire for a piece of land for sustenance, security, social structure and self… …drives groups of people with a common heritage, language, ethnicity, tribal loyalty, religion, or point of view, to seek… …territorial boundaries within which they can practice their particular way of life. Globalisation has both enabled and flouted these basic drives. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY

Colonialism De-colonialism Neo-colonialism

Colonialism, De-colonialism, and Neo-colonialism
Colonialism: the political and economic control of another region for the purpose of resource exploitation, security, cultural and/or religious “enlightenment”. Many clear cut examples of colonialism but sometimes the definitional boundary is blurred: Examples: 1853, Commodore Perry, the U.S. and Japan. 1907 U.K. installation of a monarchy in Bhutan. 1970s-80s U.S. Domino Effect foreign policy. Various recent Middle East military adventures. Various corporate resource exploitations. The rise of radical Islam. Colonialism defined as the political and economic control of another region for the purpose of resource exploitation, security, cultural and religious “enlightenment”. While there are many relatively clear cut examples of colonialism especially in Africa, sometimes the definitional boundary is blurred. For example, arguably the imposition of open trade on Japan in 1853 by the United States navy under Commodore Perry could be viewed as economic colonialism or worse. It certainly led to the saying “gunboat diplomacy”. While not making Japan a colony of the U.S., one would be hard pressed to categorize this action as anything less than an attempt at the external control of the internal affairs of an independent nation. Other, perhaps more benign examples, were the creation of “protectorates” that occurred when assistance (mostly military) was requested from one region of another. Examples of this were the U.K. establishing protectorates for the South Pacific islands of Tonga, Tuvalu, and the Solomon Islands in the 1800s. Other less than clear colonial interferences occur when nations decide to change foreign governments that they perceive as being a threat. Examples of this are the U.K.’s installation of a hereditary monarchy in Bhutan in 1907 and the U.S. involvement in the overthrow of left leaning governments in South and Central America following their “domino effect” foreign policy. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

Decolonialism and the Rise of Modern Nation States
All but 3 (Austria, Germany, China) of the 138 post-war nation states of the world resulted from decolonialisation. Three major areas and phases: The Americas, Australia and New Zealand from 1776 to 1900. Africa, South-East Asia, the Caribbean and Oceania from 1945 to mid-1980s. The former Soviet Union from 1990. The modern nation states of the world (comprising all but 20 or so of the existing 205 national or pseudo-national entities on earth) are a product of the past 250 years of colonialisation and, eventually, of decolonialisation. This process of decolonialisation has taken place in three major areas and phases: The Americas, Australia and New Zealand from 1776 to 1900; Africa, South-East Asia, the Caribbean and Oceania from 1945 to 1980; The former Soviet Union from 1990. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Americas, Australia, New Zealand from 1776 to 1900
Between 1776 until 1900 the original one hundred colonies of the Americas gained independence from Britain, Spain, and Portugal. Likewise in Oceania, Australia and New Zealand also gained independence. In many cases, notably in the former British colonies, many elected to stay associated with Great Britain in the Commonwealth and still to this day hold the British monarch as their head of state. The Americas, Australia and New Zealand from 1776 to 1900 The first modern phase of decolonialisation followed from the American War of Independence when the original one hundred colonies of what is now the Americas combined to form the nation states of these two continents. The first to wrest independence was the United States after a war with Great Britain and by 1867 The Dominion of Canada had also effectively become an independent nation, though through more peaceful means. Throughout the 1800s the former Spanish, Portuguese and British colonies of Central and South America had also gained independence, as had Australia and New Zealand. While in all cases the new nations were effectively independent it should be noted that in many cases, notably the former colonies of Canada, Australia and New Zealand, elected to stay associated with Great Britain and still to this day hold the monarch of Great Britain as their titular head of state. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

Africa, S. Asia, the Caribbean, Oceania from 1945 to 1980
Post Second World War former European colonies in Africa, Asia, Caribbean, South Pacific decolonialised. Led to many conflicts due to disregard by European colonial administrators of: Religious, ethnic, tribal and language boundaries. Cultural and religious icons, traditional customs Nomadic herding and grazing routes. Water and resource rights. Lack of administrative/financial resources to survive. Result: Corrupt governments (Africa). Split countries (Korea, Vietnam). Conflict (just about everywhere). Africa, South-East Asia, the Caribbean and Oceania from 1945 to 1980: The second major wave of decolonialisation occurred after the Second World War when the former European colonies of Africa, South and South East Asia and the Caribbean, as well as many U.S. controlled territories in the South Pacific decolonialised. This period of new nation building led to many conflicts; in Africa as ancient tribal boundaries were disregarded in the creation of new nations by European colonial administrators, splitting ethnic and language groups between newly created national territories. Even traditional nomadic herding and grazing routes were disregarded, causing strife and conflict as families and tribes attempted to continue doing what they had for centuries. As well, virtual abandonment of the new fledged nations by their colonial governors left many without the basic administrative and financial resources to build the bureaucracies needed for nation building. As a result, some of the most corrupt governments on earth are those of the African continent. In South East Asia the former colony of Vietnam wrested independence from France, only to be divided into a communist north and capitalist south, and eventually plunged into war again, this time with the United States. A similar story can be told of Korea, which to this day is split into a despotic communistic regime in the north and a corrupt capitalist democracy in the south and remains one of the most volatile areas in the world. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Former Soviet Union from 1990 to the present
Dissolution of the former Soviet Union in 1991 created 15 new nations. The story began in 1980 with the eventual success in 1989 of the Solidarity Union movement in Gdansk, Poland. Other former Soviet entities followed suit, including one that actually reduced the number of nations involved by one – the reunification of East and West Germany. Process still ongoing as former Balkan and South Caucasus states seek independence. And then there’s Crimea. The final (so far) wave of decolonialised nation building is still ongoing and was a result of the breakdown of the former Soviet empire centered on the U.S.S.R. The story began in 1989 with the success of the Solidarity Union movement in Gdansk, Poland, in creating a democratic nation out of this former post-war Soviet puppet state. Other former Soviet entities followed suit; by 1991 the Soviet Union was dissolved creating 15 new nations, including one that actually reduced the number of nations involved by one – the reunification of East and West Germany. To date 15 new nations have been created, with as many more likely in the making. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM
The Colonial World SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

But, it was 1492 and someone was about to sail the ocean blue.
The Colonial World, 1492 Heartland nations of Europe had very few colonial holdings. Turkey, the gateway to what we now call the Middle East and the Islamic world, held most sway. But, it was 1492 and someone was about to sail the ocean blue. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1550 With Columbus’s discovery of the New World (again), the Spanish and Portuguese were quick to exploit it. They also started to venture into east Africa and the Far East. The Ottoman Empire (what would become Turkey) continued to expand as well, becoming the most powerful empire on earth in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Tsardom of Russia, too, expanded eastwards. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1660 Colonialisation of the New World by the Spanish and Portuguese continued with Britain, France and the Netherlands joining in. They also continued their expansion into Africa and the Far East. The Ottoman Empire began to contract but the Tsardom of Russia continued its eastward expansion. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1754 Colonialisation of the New World by the Spanish and Portuguese is well established and moving northwards into North America. Britain and France begin their domination of what will be come Canada and the eastern U.S. They also continued their expansion into Africa and the Far East. The Ottoman Empire stablises and the Tsardom of Russia expands eastwards across Siberia. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1800 Colonialisation of the New World by the Spanish and Portuguese is almost complete and has moved far northwards into North America. France has lost its colonies in North America, and The War of Independence has created the fledgling U.S. Russia gains a foothold in North America. Britain colonises Australia and NZ. The Ottoman Empire stabilizes and the Tsardom of Russia expands eastwards across Siberia. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1822 De-colonialisation of the New World (with the exception of the Caribbean) has occurred rapidly, with most of the continent now comprised of independent nations. Russia has expanded considerably but Africa is largely colonised for the slave trade only, being limited to coastal regions. The colonisation of Australia continues, along with the “spice” islands of the Far East, and of and India. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1885 The nationalisation of the modern United States is almost complete, as is the formation of Canada and Russia. India is almost completely colonised by Britain, as is Australia. Inroads are being made in North Africa as Britain moves southwards from its colony in Egypt. The colonisation of the Far East spice islands by, particularly, The Netherlands, also continues. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1898 Britain France Spain Portugal Netherlands Germany Turkey Belgium Russia Japan China Austro-Hungary Denmark Sweden-Norway USA Italy The colonisation of Africa by European nations in pursuit of resources other than slaves has occurred rapidly and almost completely, with the Kingdom of Ethiopia, Zululand and Morocco and the Western Sahara the only holdouts. The Netherlands has almost complete domination of the Far East spice islands. As well, and of future consequence, redefinition of Hungary and Austria by the Austro-Hungarian Empire has started. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1914 The colonisation picture remains fairly stable at the beginning of the First World War, but the assassination of Archduke Frans Ferdinand in 1914 and the ensuing World War put an end to the empire and, eventually, led to the Second World War. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1920 Britain France Spain Portugal Netherlands Germany Belgium Russia Japan Denmark Norway USA Italy WW1 saw the end of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of the nation state of Turkey. The previous Ottoman colonial holdings reverted to the victor states of the war especially Britain, or to independence. The same thing happened to German colonies in the Far East and Africa. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1938 By the eve of WW2 the face of Europe had been changed. Fascist states had grown in Germany, Italy and Spain. But the only colonial change occurred in the previously independent African nation of Ethiopia, which was conquered by Italy. Some previously Dutch colonies in the Far East were also traded to Britain. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1945 The end of WW2 brought the beginning of decolonialisation to Africa but a new set of dependencies across the Pacific as a result of American actions during the war. The number of colonial players had decreased with the defeat of the axis and most colonial states petitioned – or fought – for independence. As well, the Soviet Union began its expansion into Poland, eastern Europe and the Balkans. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1959 By 1959 decolonialisation of Africa and the Caribbean had begun in earnest, with India getting independence in However, the Soviet Union continued its expansion in eastern Europe, and virtually all the heartland European nations were attempting to control the geopolitics of the world through politics, economics or military actions, creating the First, Second and Third World labels. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 1974 By 1974 the decolonialisation of Africa, the Caribbean and most of the rest of the world had occurred. The exception was the Soviet Union who still held eastern Europe and Poland in their sway. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

The Colonial World, 2007 Starting in the 1980s with the Solidarity union movement in Poland, and culminating in the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1990, the last vestiges of colonialism disappeared with the break up of the Soviet Union and the independence – once again – of its component nations states. While political dependence of one nation on another had more or less ended, transnational corporate economic colonialism of a sort still remains. SPACE GEOGRAPHY TERRITORY - COLONIALISM

And then there’s the environment.

Let’s not forget the environment. Let’s not forget the environment.
Maldives Average height above sea level = 4 feet Highest point = 7 feet 10 inches Lowest country in the world. Country with the lowest high point.

NATIONS REGIONS THE GLOBAL VILLAGE And how we got here…

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NATIONS REGIONS THE GLOBAL VILLAGE And how we got here…

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