1. Varying perspectives on what it means to be a male or female
Gender Issues
Varying perspectives on what it means to be a male or female

2. Big Confusing Questions
What does it mean to be a male or female in our society?
Are the behavioral preferences of males and females based on biology or culture?
Do our society’s attitudes and expectations hurt or help our sexual relations?

3. Definitions SEX – biological maleness or femaleness
genetic – determined by chromosomes
anatomical – obvious physical differences
between males and females

4. Gender – psychological aspects of maleness or femaleness
Gender Identity – the subjective sense of being either male or female
What sex you think you are, or really should be.

5. Gender Role – attitudes and behaviors considered appropriate in a specific culture for people of a particular sex
Expectations we should fulfill
Masculine or Feminine
Vary widely from culture to culture but rapidly evolving

6. Forming a Gender Identity
Does it simply flow from anatomy?
For some of us, it’s not always that easy
For all of us, it all starts in our mother’s womb, at the instant of conception, as prenatally we begin the tortuous path of sexual differentiation.

7. Chromosomal Influences
We receive 23 chromosomes from each parent.
Of these, 22 pairs are identical in structure.
The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, determines whether we are genetically male or female.

8. More Chromosomes
If we receive an X from both parents, we will be female (XX).
A y from our father, and we are male (Xy).
One gene on the y (SRY) leads to testes development.
Perhaps one gene on X (DSS) leads to the development of female characteristics. If so, we are not inherently female.

9. The Gonadal Stage
Males and females have identical gonads (reproductive organs) until about 6 weeks after conception when SRY or DSS spur their development
Once the testes or ovaries become functional their release of hormones controls further differentiation

10. The Crucial Role of Hormones
The gonads release the sex hormones into the blood stream
Ovaries produce:
1) estrogen a hormone which develops female sexual characteristics and regulates menstruation, as do
2) progestational compounds

11. Testes release androgens which promote the development of male genitals and secondary sexual characteristics
Another hormone released by the testes, testosterone, also promotes sexual motivation
Both males and females produce the sex hormones typically associated with the other (testosterone and estrogen) but in much smaller quantities

12. Internal reproductive structures - males
At about 8 weeks after conception:
Males – androgens stimulate the woffian ducts to develop into the “plumbing” which will allow semen creation and transmission
another hormone causes the mullerian duct system to vanish

13. Female reproductive organs
Without the influence of androgen, mullerian ducts develop into female structures and the woffian duct system fades into nothingness

14. External reproductive structures
A product of testosterone – DHT – causes portions of the undifferentiated sex organs to fuse and form the scrotum and penis
Without DHT this fusion does not take place and the clitoris, labia minora, and labia majora form
By the 12th week, it’s all done and our sex is apparent

15. Brain Differentiation
For males, in the Hypothalamus, testosterone exposure leads to insensitivity to the effects of estrogen, preventing the establishment of the menstrual cycle at puberty
Also, some of its regions are much larger in heterosexual males than females

16. The Cerebral Cortex
Are differences between the sexes on verbal and spatial cognitive skills caused by differences in their cerebral cortexes?
Men appear to often rely on just one hemisphere.
Women have a thicker corpus callosum facilitating the use of both hemispheres

17. But there’s more
Are there other reasons why men perform better on spatial tasks while women shine in verbal measures?

18. The power of Expectations
Recent research highlights the importance of psychosocial, not biological, influences.
Social Expectations – girls do just as well as boys initially in science and math, but falter in high school.
Where they discouraged ?
Changing Expectations – by the late 90’s, the gap had largely vanished.

19. Atypical Differentiation
How, and why, do things go awry?
Hermaphrodites/Intersexed – people who possess biological attributes of both sexes
Very few have both ovaries and testes, most have ambiguous anatomy but their gonads match their chromosomes and they are called pseudo hermaphrodites

20. Problems at the Chromosomal Level
Turner’s Syndrome
Just one sex chromosome – X
Left with 45 rather than 46
Normal external female genitals but little or no evidence of ovaries/hormones
Despite that, feminine in interests and behavior
1 of 2000 births

21. Faulty Chromosomes cont.
Klinefelter’s Syndrome
XXy occurs in 1 of 500 births
Anatomically male
Presence of extra X stops development of male structures, resulting in sterility
No interest in sex, no testosterone
Tall, “rounded”, feminine, but content as males

22. Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
An otherwise normal male, unaffected by prenatal exposure to androgen
Results in female genitals, including a shallow, but nonfunctional vagina
Raised as girls, they assume a female gender identity and thrive as females

23. Fetally Androgenized Females
Chromosomally normal females exposed to excessive androgens
At birth genitals appear to be male
“Corrected” by minor surgery, most still reject a female gender identity with some assuming a male gender identity and behavior

24. DHT-Lacking Males Males who cannot produce crucial DHT
Result – female appearing external genitals, at least initially
Typically raised as girls, they suddenly sprout into males at puberty
In one study, 16 of 18 cast off their female gender identity and happily assumed male sex roles

25. The Puzzle of Gender Identity
Why do we think we belong to one sex, even though our anatomy tells us differently?
Evidence, both cross-cultural, and otherwise, points to the importance of social-learning forces.

26. Social-Learning Influences
Familial expectations (blue room vs. pink room) start before birth
Familial perceptions/interpretations vary
Familial responses vary similarly
By 3, most of us have a firm gender identity, and reinforcement momentum builds as kids mimic same-sex parent

27. Cross-Cultural Evidence
Margaret Mead’s ground-breaking studies
In Mundugumor, both sexes are aggressive, insensitive – Masculine ?
In Arapesh, both sexes are nurturing and gentle – Feminine?
In Tchambuli, we find a reversal of our customary sex roles
Therefore, it’s more culture than biology

28. Are We Sexually Neutral at Birth?
In the 1960’s, Dr. John Money at John Hopkins thought so
Intersexed infants were surgically “fixed” to have female genitals, regardless of their chromosomal sex
It’s easier to make a functional vagina than a penis
Initially, this approach seemed to work

29. Chromosomes Win Out
As these individuals matured, some of the children assigned a sex at odds with their chromosomes rejected their expected gender identity
“The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl”
Since the social learning model obviously has its limits, now even John Money endorses an interactional model

30. Transsexualism & Transgenderism
Transsexual (TS) – someone whose gender identity is opposite to their biological sex
TSs feel that their biological sex is mistaken. Many seek sex-reassignment, many do not.

31. Transgendered (TG) – people whose appearance and/or behaviors do not match traditional gender roles.
TGs behave in a way that flouts society’s expectations. Often, they cross-dress.
TGs do not seek sexual reassignment – surgery.

32. Gender Dysphoria
Some, but not all, of TSs and TGs experience gender dysphoria – unhappiness with their biological sex or expected sex role.

33. Gender Identity/Orientation
Sexual Orientation – the sex we are emotionally and physically attracted to
Gender Identity – the sex we believe we belong to, even despite biology
Most TSs are attracted/oriented to those who share (pre-surgery) their anatomy
But some male to female TSs prefer females

34. Gender-Identity Disorder
According to DSM IV TR, to fit the Gender-Identity Disorder “tag”, individuals must:
1) have pervasive cross-gender beliefs,
2) dysphoria
3) lack a physical intersex condition, &
4) show great distress and problems functioning in society and at work

35. Transsexuals: Why? Most have no problems with chromosomes or anatomy
90% lack any hint of mental illness
While at first 75% were male, this gap has narrowed
Most develop their desire to change sexes in childhood
Dating!

36. Fine, But Why? We still don’t know, two theories exist.
Hormonal – prenatal exposure to inappropriate levels alters brain differentiation – But most are normal.
Social Learning – children are conditioned to behave in a manner consistent with the other sex and reinforced for mimicking other sex parent.

37. OK(?) What Do We Do?
Perhaps psychotherapy can alleviate the need for reassignment surgery. But often it can’t, leaving no choice but:
SEX-REASSIGNMENT SURGERY

38. PROTOCOL 1) Interviews 2) Living the life – for a year or longer
3) Hormone therapy – reverse secondary sexual characteristics, and, finally,

39. The Surgery Works better for male to female switch
Penis tissue becomes the vagina
Some can even experience arousal and orgasm
Additional surgery can change the pitch of their voice

40. Female to Male Breasts, uterus, ovaries removed
Vagina sealed, penis constructed – but no erection from sexual arousal
Does it work?
Most report a significant increase in their overall adjustment to life

41. Cultural Gender Roles Men – assertive, logical, competitive, competent
Women – submissive, warm, nurturing, emotional
Most psychologists argue that our gender roles arise from socialization – our learning histories, through which we accept our society’s expectations for our behavior

42. The Socialization of Sex Roles
Who and what shapes our assumed sex roles?
Parents – often have differing expectations for, and treatment of, boys and girls
Encourage or discourage certain toys
“gender appropriate” play
But today sports are pushed for both

43. Other Socializing Forces
Peers
Voluntarily segregation, even in pre-school
Reinforces sex-typing in play
Influence even increases in adolescence
Otherwise face social ridicule
Often produces stereotyping

44. Schools & Textbooks
From the 70’s to the early 90’s, girls and boys were treated quite differently
Boys were encouraged to be assertive, received more tolerance when “bad”, more attention, help and praise
Girls praised for “neatness” not substance, encouraged to be dependent and to avoid math and sciences
Recently, these attitudes have shifted

45. Television
Also perpetuates gender stereotypes
Women are both underrepresented and presented stereotypically
Hope springs from The Wild Thornberrys, Alias, and Judging Amy
Marketing concerns should push this positive trend since women both watch and buy more

46. Religion
Promotes males as superior – God, Pope, Bishop, Priest, etc.
Women portrayed as Eve, Virgin Mary
Encouraged to model roles such as educators, nurses, charity workers
Recently, many denominations have ordained women ministers and moved to eliminate masculine metaphors for God

47. Gender-Role Assumptions
Women as undersexed, mean as over
women have been told that they should not desire or enjoy sex
men should pursue every chance
unfairly limits both

48. More Assumptions Men initiate, women respond
Men approach, “ask out”, “pick up”, “make the move”
Women respond with submission or rejection
Causes men to feel pressure and anxiety
Women may wish to initiate but feel pressure

49. Finally Men as unemotional Women as nurturing
Do these assumptions still prevail?