1. Phases of Decolonization
Phase one: roughly (most of West and East Africa)
Phase two: roughly (mostly Southern/Central Africa)

3. The 1960s: Optimism and Compromise
The first phase of decolonization was by no means without violence, but it included many examples of peaceful, smooth transfer of power
Colonial powers maintain some control over the terms of decolonization
Decolonization was grounded in the rhetoric of democracy and classical liberalism
Newly independent states looked to Japan and Germany as models of a post-occupation boom

4. French West and Equitorial Africa
After 1946, French West and Equitorial Africa were permitted to send ten delegates to the French National Assembly
Many of these delegates returned to Africa and became nationalist leaders
By 1956, internal self-government had been achieved throughout French West and Equitorial Africa

5. 1958 “Oui” or “Non” Vote Instituted by Charles de Gaulle
Aimed at forestalling African demands for independence
All colonies but Guinea voted “oui,” agreeing to continued French sovereignty
All French ties to Guinea immediately withdrawn
Departing French officials destroyed government records and buildings

6. Despite “oui” vote, colonies still demanded further concessions in terms of independence
French government agreed to formal independence for many colonies in 1960, with the proviso that economic ties to France be maintained

7. The Belgian Congo
Extremely limited opportunities for education and political organization
1956: “middle class” elections for municipal governments
Most political organizations were regionally based
Leopoldville/Kinshasa a key center of anti-colonial agitation

8. Rapid movement towards decolonization in 1959-60—insufficient preparation?
Patrice Lumumba’s Mouvement Nationale Congolais gained power but was unable to gain sufficient support throughout the country, lost control of both Katanga and the army
General Joseph Mobutu backed by US
Even before Mobutu’s formal seizure of power in a 1965 coup, the government became rife with corruption
Mobutu’s rise to power associated with a cult of personality as well as outside backing

9. British Central Africa
Southern Rhodesia: sizeable settler population (150,000 in 1950, 200,000 by 1960), Northern Rhodesia: mineral resources, Nyasaland: labor resources
S. Rhodesian settlers began demanding federation following WWII
Federation strongly resisted by Africans, incl. Dr. Hastings Banda
Federation pushed through in 1953

10. African protest intensified over the 1950s, leading to the declaration of a state of emergency in Nyasaland 1959
Prime Minister Harold Macmillan’s “winds of change” speech in Cape Town, 1960
South Africa severed all ties with Britain
Zambia and Malawi moved towards independence in 1964
Southern Rhodesian settlers under Ian Smith issued unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) in 1965

11. Ghana
1964: Ghana declared a one-party state with Nkrumah as Life President
Nkrumah insisted that the development of the country as a whole (which he saw as synonymous with industrialization) must supersede individual prosperity
One major project was the Akosombo dam, which put Ghana into serious debt

12. Increased debt meant higher taxes on cocoa farmers, the basis of the economy
While Nkrumah was on a state visit to Vietnam in 1966, he was overthrown in a military coup

13. Arbitrary Boundaries and Structural Legacies of Colonialism
Katanga/Shaba province of Congo/Zaire
Biafran War:
-raised the issue of self-determination
Nationalism vs. nation-building

15. The Second Phase of Decolonization
Violence was far more ubiquitous than in the first phase of decolonization
Decolonization tended to be grounded in the rhetoric of liberation and social transformation
Deeply enmeshed with the Cold War

16. Portuguese Africa
Metropolitan government viewed colonies (Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Angola and Mozambique) as absolutely essential, were willing to exert force to retain them
Pattern of “liberation movements” was set by Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau
By 1974, all Portuguese colonies in some state of open hostility
1974 coup in Portugal predicated on military withdrawal from Africa

17. Withdrawal of Portuguese troops in 1975 left both Angola and Mozambique in a state of civil war
MPLA in Angola and FRELIMO in Mozambique were strongly socialist in perspective, received support from USSR and Cuba (incl. 13,000 Cuban troops in Angola)
UNITA in Angola and RENAMO in Mozambique received support from South Africa, Southern Rhodesia and the United States

18. Both MPLA and FRELIMO constituted official governments, but their legitimacy and ability to govern were severely limited by opposing groups
Despite outside intervention, opposition groups also played on dissent within the populace at large

19. Southern Rhodesia/Zimbabwe
Violence against Smith government began immediately following UDI
Following Portuguese withdrawal, Smith government found itself more isolated
A compromise government was installed in 1978, but this was unable to stop guerilla fighting and was discredited
Full free elections held in 1979, resulting in the 1980 creation of independent Zimbabwe

20. South Africa and Its Neighbors
Botswana and Lesotho independent in 1966, Swaziland in 1968
SW Africa (Nambia) remained under the control of South Africa
1976 Soweto uprising ushered in 15 years of concerted resistance to apartheid, resulting in state of emergency
Concerns about African National Congress made Britain and US hesitant to intervene

21. South Africa became increasingly isolated following Zimbabwean independence and the sanctions movement in Europe and the US
In 1990, shift towards democracy began and Namibia was granted independence
Full free elections held in 1994