1. Leadership

2. Leadership What is it? General Definition Hard to define
We know it when we see it
General Definition
Social influence in an organizational setting, the effects of which are relevant to or have an impact on the achievement of organizational goals

3. Leader Effectiveness
How can we tell a “good” leader from a “poor” leader? (What results would we expect to see from a “good” leader?)
Performance (the job gets done)
Motivation (followers are energized)
Effort (followers try hard)
Satisfaction (followers are happy)

4. Focus of Trait Approach
Personality
Assessments
Leader
Focuses exclusively on leader
What traits leaders exhibit
Who has these traits
Organizations use personality assessments to find “Right” people
Assumption - will increase organizational effectiveness
Specify characteristics/traits for specific positions
Personality assessment measures for “fit”
What impact do follower traits have on who is perceived as a leader?
Amanda’s question--Given these findings, how many leadership traits are dependent upon the group’s perception of leadership traits, rather than traits that the leader may actually possess? Also, how much of the perception of leadership depends upon the level of leadership traits possessed by those in non-leadership positions in the group? (Example: A college graduate is leading a group of college undergraduates except for one person, who has their Master’s degree. Will the Master’s degree member perceive their leader differently than will the rest of the group?)

5. Strengths Highlights leadership component in the leadership process
Deeper level understanding of how leader/personality related to leadership process
Provides benchmarks for what to look for in a leader
Intuitively appealing
Perception that leaders are different in that they possess special traits
People “need” to view leaders as gifted
Credibility due to a century of research support

6. Criticisms Fails to delimit a definitive list of leadership traits
Endless lists have emerged
Doesn’t take into account situational effects
Leaders in one situation may not be leaders in another situation
List of most important leadership traits is highly subjective
Much subjective experience & observations serve as basis for identified leadership traits
Research fails to look at traits in relationship to leadership outcomes
Not useful for training & development
How does this theory explain the fact that some individuals only “lead” in certain situations?
If there are so many criticisms for the trait approach, then why do business still focus on hiring people because of their traits?

7. Application
Provides direction as to which traits are good to have if one aspires to a leadership position
Through various tests and questionnaires, individuals can determine whether they have the select leadership traits and can pinpoint their strengths and weaknesses
Can be used by managers to assess where they stand within their organization and what is needed to strengthen their position
Leadership Traits
Intelligence
Self-Confidence
Determination
Integrity
Sociability
Adaptability
Why is self-awareness valuable in the context of trait theory?
People can find organizations where there traits will be beneficial (e.g., military or paramilitary organizations)
Talk about Firemen.

8. Style Approach Description
Perspective
Definition
Comprised of Two Kinds of Behaviors
Task behaviors
Facilitate goal accomplishment
Relationship behaviors
Help subordinates feel comfortable with themselves, each other, and the situation
Leader-focused perspective
Emphasis on what leaders do and how they act

9. Style Approach Focus Overall Scope
Primarily a framework for assessing leadership in a broad way as behavior with a task and relationship dimension
Offers a means of generally assessing the behaviors of leaders

10. Strengths
Style Approach marked a major shift in leadership research from exclusively trait focused to include behaviors and actions of leaders
Broad range of studies on leadership style validates and gives credibility to the basic tenets of the approach
At conceptual level, a leader’s style is composed of two major types of behaviors: task and relationship
Based on style approach, leaders can assess their actions and determine how to change to improve their leadership style

11. Criticisms
Research has not adequately demonstrated how leaders’ styles are associated with performance outcomes
No universal style of leadership that could be effective in most situations
Implies that the most effective leadership style is High-High style (i.e., high task/high relationship); research finding support is limited

12. Leadership as Behavior
100’s of studies examined the effects of leader behavior on employees.
Results were mixed, inconclusive (Bass, 1990).
Fleishman and Harris (1962) found that initiating structure was positively related to employee grievances and turnover.
House, Filley, and Kerr (1971) found evidence suggesting initiating structure was positively related to employee satisfaction.
Ask audience if they have any ideas why findings were conflicting
Directive behavior - the supervisor organizes and defines group activities, assigns tasks, plans ahead, and establishes ways to get things done.
Example. I assembled parts to be used computers that monitor nuclear reactors at power plants in Florida. My supervisor would assign me the components to assemble and instruct me on the most proficient way to produce quality products. He also tracked the assembly of a number of other parts and coordinated their production.
Fleishman & Harris (1962) sample was industrial supervisors at the International Harvester Company.
House, Filley and Kerr collected data from the research, development & design departments of three large organizations.

13. Leadership as Behavior
Fleischman & Harris
The effects of IS on grievances depends on Consideration
The effects of both traits and behavior on leader effectiveness depends on the situation

14. Contingency Theory Approach
“Leaders match their style to the competence and commitment of subordinates.”
Perspective
Definition
Contingency theory is a leader-match theory (Fiedler & Chemers, 1974)
Tries to match leaders to appropriate situations
Leader’s effectiveness depends on how well the leader’s style fits the context
Fiedler et al.’s generalizations about which styles of leadership are best and worst are empirically grounded
Effective leadership is contingent on matching a leader’s style to the right setting

15. Dimension Definitions
Leadership Styles
Definition
Dimension Definitions
Leadership styles are described as:
Task motivated
Relationship motivated
Task-motivated leaders -Concerned primarily with reaching a goal
Relationship-motivated leaders - Concerned with developing close interpersonal relationships
Leader Style Measurement Scale
Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale
High = Relationship-motivated leader
Low = Task-motivated leader

16. Situational Variables
Factors
Definition
LMR - Refers to the group atmosphere and the degree of confidence, loyalty, and attraction of followers for leader
TS - Concerns the degree to which requirements of a task are clear and spelled out
PP - Designates the amount of authority a leader has to reward or punish followers
Leader-Member Relations
Task Structure
Position Power
Determine
Favorableness
of Situations
in Organizations

17. Contingency Model Good Poor High Structure Low 1 Leader- Member
Strong
Power
Weak
Leader-
Member
Relations
Task
Position
Preferred
Leadership
Style 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Low LPCs
Middle LPCs
High LPCs
LPCs

18. Strengths
Empirical support. Contingency theory has been tested by many researchers and found to be a valid and reliable approach to explaining how to achieve effective leadership.
Broadened understanding. Contingency theory has broadened the scope of leadership understanding from a focus on a single, best type of leadership (e.g., trait approach) to emphasizing the importance of a leader’s style and the demands of different situations.
Predictive. Because Contingency theory is predictive, it provides relevant information regarding the type of leadership that is most likely to be effective in particular contexts.
Not an all-or-nothing approach. Contingency theory contends that leaders should not expect to be effective in every situation; thus companies should strive to place leaders in optimal situations according to their leadership style.
Leadership profiles. Contingency theory supplies data on leadership styles that could be useful to organizations in developing leadership profiles for human resource planning.

19. Criticisms
Fails to fully explain why leaders with particular leadership styles are more effective in some situations than others (Black Box problem)
Criticism of LPC scale validity as it does not correlate well with other standard leadership measures
Cumbersome to use in real-world settings
Fails to adequately explain what should be done about a leader/situation mismatch in the workplace

20. Path-Goal Theory Approach
Perspective
Definition
Goal - To enhance employee performance and satisfaction by focusing on employee motivation
Premise - Subordinates will be motivated if they believe: (a) they are capable of performing their work; (b) that their efforts will be rewarded; and (c) that the payoff will be worthwhile
Challenge - To use a leadership style that best meets subordinates’ motivational needs
Path-goal theory centers on how leaders motivate subordinates to accomplish designated goals

21. Conditions of Leadership Motivation
Leadership generates motivation when:
It increases the number and kinds of payoffs
Path to the goal is clear and easily traveled with coaching and direction
Obstacles and roadblocks are removed
The work itself is personally satisfying

22. Path-Goal Theory Approach
Focus
Overall Scope
Path-goal theory is a complex but also pragmatic approach
Leaders should choose a leadership style that best fits the needs of subordinates and their work
Path-goal theory provides a set of assumptions about how different leadership styles will interact with subordinate characteristics and the work situation to affect employee motivation

23. Situational Theories of Leadership
Path-Goal Theory hypothesizes that effects of leader behavior on employee performance and satisfaction depend on how leader behavior affects employee motivation.
Directive - Providing guidelines on how to perform tasks.. 
Supportive - demonstrating concern for subordinates’ well being and must be supportive of them as individuals. 
Participative - leader must solicit ideas and suggestions from subordinates and directly invite their participation. 
Achievement - leader sets challenging goals, emphasizing improvements in work performance, and encouraging high levels of goal attainment. 
Effective leaders need all four of these styles since each produces different results. 

24. Strengths
Useful theoretical framework. Path-goal theory is a useful theoretical framework for understanding how various leadership behaviors affect the satisfaction of subordinates and their work performance.
Integrates motivation. Path-goal theory attempts to integrate the motivation principles of expectancy theory into a theory of leadership.
Practical model. Path-goal theory provides a practical model that underscores and highlights the important ways leaders help subordinates.

25. Criticisms
Interpreting the meaning of the theory can be confusing because it is so complex and incorporates so many different aspects of leadership; consequently, it is difficult to implement.
Empirical research studies have demonstrated only partial support for path-goal theory.
It fails to adequately explain the relationship between leadership behavior and worker motivation.
The path-goal theory approach treats leadership as a one-way event in which the leader affects the subordinate.

26. Application
PGT offers valuable insights that can be applied in ongoing settings to improve one’s leadership.
Informs leaders about when to be directive, supportive, participative, or achievement oriented
The principles of PGT can be employed by leaders at all organizational levels and for all types of tasks

27. Situational Theories of Leadership
Vroom-Yetton Normative Model
Leadership as decision making
Decision-situation model
Theorized that performance was affected by the process leaders use to make decisions

28. Vroom-Yetton Normative Model
Process used to make decision affects:
Decision quality
Decision acceptance
The effectiveness of any decision making process depends on several situational factors

29. Decision Making Example
You are the head of a personnel department which reports to the company president. The president has asked you to make recommendations on how to change and update the performance appraisal system. You are not sure about the approach to take. Your specialty is selection and you desire more information on performance appraisal. Fortunately, three members of your staff are experienced with the various aspects of performance appraisal. However, they rarely agree with each other on the best way to achieve something when it comes to performance appraisal. Fortunately, for this project, these employees will not implement the recommendations.

30. Leadership as Power
Agent exerts more influence on a target than a target can resist.
Possible outcomes of using power
Resistance
Compliance
Commitment
Sources of Power
Reward
Coercive
Legitimate
Expert
Referent

31. Likely Outcomes of Using Power
Type of Outcome
Base of
Power
Commitment
Compliance
Resistance
Referent
Likely
Possible
Expert
Legitimate
Reward
Coercive
Very Unlikely

32. LMX Theory Approach Description
Perspective
Definition
Development - LMX theory first described by Dansereau, Graen, & Haga (1975), Graen & Cashman (1975), and Graen (1976)
Revisions - Theory has undergone a number of revisions since its inception and continues to be of interest to researchers
Assumption - LMX theory challenges the assumption that leaders treat followers in a collective way.
LMX theory conceptualizes leadership as a process centered in the interactions between leaders and followers.

33. Later Studies Less employee turnover
Initial research primarily addressed differences between in-groups and out-groups; later research addressed how LMX theory was related to organizational effectiveness
Researchers (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) found that high-quality leader-member exchanges resulted in:
Less employee turnover
More positive performance evaluations
Higher frequency of promotions
Greater organizational commitment
More desirable work assignments
Better job attitudes
More attention and support from the leader
Greater participation
Faster career progress

34. Phases in Leadership Making Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995)
Stranger
Scripted
Acquaintance
Partner
Roles
Influences
Exchanges
Interests
One Way
Low Quality
Self
Tested
Mixed
Medium Quality
Self / Other
Negotiated
Reciprocal
High Quality
Group
TIME

35. Phase 1 Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995)
Stranger
Interactions rule bound
Rely on contractual relationships
Relate to each other within prescribed
organizational roles
Experience lower quality exchanges
Subordinate motives directed
toward self-interest

36. Phase 2 Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995)
Acquaintance
Offer by leader/subordinate for improved
career-oriented social exchanges
Testing period of taking on new roles and
leader providing new challenges
Shift from formalized interactions to
new ways of relating
Quality of exchanges improve along with
greater trust and respect
Less focus on self-interest, more on goals of
the group

37. Phase 3 Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995)
Mature Partnership
Marked by high-quality LMX exchanges
Experience high degree of mutual trust,
respect, and obligation toward one another
Tested relationship that is dependable
High degree of reciprocity between leader and
subordinate
May depend on each other for favors and
special assistance
Highly developed patterns of relating that
produce positive outcomes
Phase 3

38. LMX Theory Approach Descriptive Prescriptive
Essential to recognize existence of in-groups & out-groups
Significant differences in how goals are accomplished using in-groups vs. out-groups
Relevant differences in in-group vs. out-group behaviors
Best understood within the Leadership Making Model
Leader forms special relationship with each subordinate
Leader should offer each subordinate an opportunity for new roles/responsibilities
Leader should nurture high-quality exchanges with all subordinates
Rather than concentrating on differences, leader should focus on ways to build trust

39. Strengths
LMX theory validates our experience of how people within organizations relate to each other and the leader
LMX theory is the only leadership approach that makes the dyadic relationship the centerpiece of the leadership process
LMX theory directs our attention to the importance of communication
Solid research foundation on how the practice of LMX theory is related to positive organizational outcomes

40. Criticisms
Inadvertently supports the development of privileged groups in the workplace; appears unfair and discriminatory
The basic theoretical ideas of LMX are not fully developed
Because of various scales and levels of analysis, measurement of leader-member exchanges is being questioned

41. Application
Applicable to all levels of management and different types of organizations
Directs managers to assess their leadership from a relationship perspective
Sensitizes managers to how in-groups and out-groups develop within their work unit
Can be used to explain how individuals create leadership networks throughout an organization

42. Model of Transformational Leadership Bass (1985)
Transactional
Leadership
Laissez-Faire
Leadership
TL motivates followers beyond the expected by:
raising consciousness about the value and importance of specific and idealized goals
transcending self-interest for the good of the organization
addressing higher-level needs

43. Transformational Leadership Factors
Individualized
Consideration
Factor 6
Mgmt. by Exception
Active & Passive
Corrective Transactions
Factor 3
Intellectual
Stimulation
Factor 7
Laissez-Faire
Nontransactional
Lassiez-Faire
Transformational
Transactional
Factor 5
Contingent Reward
Constructive
Transactions
Factor 2
Inspirational
Motivational
Factor 1
Idealized Influence
Charisma
Leaders who exhibit TL:
have a strong set of values & ideals
are effective in motivating followers to support
greater good over self-interest

44. Transformational Leadership Factors The 4 “I”s
Idealized
Influence
Describes leaders who act as strong role models for followers
Inspirational
Motivation
Leaders who communicate high expectations to followers, inspiring them through motivation to commitment and engagement in the shared vision of the organization
Intellectual
Stimulation
Stimulates followers to be creative and innovative; challenges
their own beliefs and values and those of leader and organization
Individualized
Consideration
Leaders who provide a supportive climate in which they listen carefully
to the needs of followers

45. Transactional Leadership Factors
Contingent
Reward
The exchange process between leaders and followers in which effort by
followers is exchanged for specified rewards
Management by
Exception
Leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative feedback, and
negative reinforcement
Two forms
Active - Watches follower closely to identify mistakes/rule violations
Passive - Intervenes only after standards have not been met or
problems have arisen

46. Nonleadership Factor Laissez-Faire
The absence of leadership. A hands-off, let-things-ride approach. Refers to a leader who abdicates responsibility, delays decisions, gives no feedback, and makes little effort to help followers satisfy their needs.

47. Transformational Leadership Approach
Focus of Transformational Leaders
Overall Scope
Describes how leaders can initiate, develop, and carry out significant changes in organizations
TLs empower and nurture followers
TLs stimulate change by becoming strong role models for followers
TLs commonly create a vision
TLs act as change agents
TLs are social architects

48. Strengths
Broadly researched. TL has been widely researched, including a large body of qualitative research centering on prominent leaders and CEOs in major firms.
Intuitive appeal. People are attracted to TL because it makes sense to them.
Process-focused. TL treats leadership as a process occurring between followers and leaders.
Expansive leadership view. TL provides a broader view of leadership that augments other leadership models.
Emphasizes follower. TL emphasizes followers’ needs, values, and morals.
Effectiveness. Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of leadership.

49. Criticisms Lacks conceptual clarity Measurement questioned
Dimensions are not clearly delimited
Parameters of TL overlap with similar conceptualizations of leadership
Measurement questioned
Validity of MLQ not fully established
Some transformational factors are not unique solely to the transformational model
TL treats leadership more as a personality trait or predisposition than a behavior that can be taught
TL is elitist and antidemocratic
Suffers from heroic leadership bias
TL is based primarily on qualitative data
Has the potential to be abused

50. Application
Provides a general way of thinking about leadership that stresses ideals, inspiration, innovations, and individual concerns
Can be taught to individuals at all levels of the organization
Able to positively impact a firm’s performance
May be used as a tool in recruitment, selection, promotion, and training development
Can be used to improve team development, decision-making groups, quality initiatives, and reorganizations
The MLQ helps leaders to target areas of leadership improvement