1. IE 486 Work Analysis & Design II
Vincent G. Duffy, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
School of Industrial Engineering
and Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering
Purdue University
Thursday, January 18, 2007
Lecture 2- Macroergonomics

2. IE 486 Administrative
Wickens text on reserve; electronic version (full version) of Freivalds text is also in library catalog
Re: CPS Clickers – we’ll use them in Feb.
Today – ch.19
Next week – ch.6 & 7 in Wickens
Lab schedules revised – show today
Times include sections on Friday 8:30, 10:30, 1:30 and 3:30.

3. Macroergonomics
The chapter we will refer to is Ch. 19 in Wickens (titled Social Factors)
The chapter is comprised of key elements among the social AND organizational factors
Macroergonomics addresses the social and organizational aspects

4. Social factors Ch.19 in Wickens
impact of groups and teams on performance
how technology supports groups and teams
Why care about groups and teams in Work Analysis & Design?
Individuals vary with respect to performance and error
So do teams
Consider
Performance, task/goals, people/team characteristics – capabilities and limitations

5. Social factors
QOTD Q.1. Why care about groups and teams in Work Analysis & Design?
Individuals vary with respect to performance and error
So do teams
Besides ‘system/technology characteristics’
Consider also
Performance, task/goals, people/team characteristics – capabilities and limitations

6. Characteristics of teams
‘All teams are groups, but not all groups are teams’
teams tend to have the following characteristics
group perceived as a work unit by members & non-members
interdependence (reliance on one another) and ‘shared’ outcome
role differentiation
interdependent relations with other groups

7. Team performance
In a complex, dynamic environment with ‘safety’ considerations, communication and job performance typically decline
Communication has a strong impact on performance (see also p.499 in 2nd ed.)

8. Team training Emphasizes the acquisition of ‘team skills’
Computers/specialized software can support communication and coordination
see also groupware p.500 2nd ed.
they can
provide anonymity
impose structure on the process
provide workspace for ideas or writing
reduce ‘disapproval’ and counterproductive behavior such as ‘minority’ exercising authority and control

9. Decision and communication support systems
Decision support can increase confidence in decisions
Communication support can decrease domination of the group by a few
however, communication support also can decrease overall cooperation and consensus building
(see also refs. By Nunamaker, Az.State).
Collocated teams outperform distributed teams
reducing visual access significantly impacts group dynamics (p.604; 1st ed.)

10. Difficulties in remote collaboration
‘Whether advances in technology can overcome the disadvantages of distance collaboration is not clear.’ (p.503, 2nd ed.)

11. Organizational factors
Microergonomics - focus on individual workers
Macro ergonomics - address performance and safety at the social and organizational levels
rather than only the physical and cognitive levels.
Why is it needed?
“In understanding ‘accidents’ in high-hazard industries decisions must be understood in context” p , 2nd ed.

12. Organizational change - barriers
Training may be costly
stockholders would prefer pay dividends rather than reinvest in the company
managers may lose power and authority
many people naturally resist change
reward structures typically don’t support ‘change’
employee participation (participatory ergonomics) can help to overcome these barriers (p.504)
As is shown in recent literature on ‘user access for all’-Social; and ‘intranets & organizational learning’, more research is needed

13. Types of systems
Described in relation to degree of complexity and coupling
These are dimensions affecting performance and safety
Degree of complexity and coupling has implications for the likelihood of catastrophic failure
Highly complex, tightly coupled systems are vulnerable to catastrophic failure
Work design specialists may study events leading to failures at Chernobyl, Three mile island, Challenger, now: Katrina
Considering the team/organizational aspects

14. Types of systems
Complexity refers to the number of feedback loops, interconnected subsystems and invisible unexpected interactions
Nuclear power and petrochemical plants are complex – behavior of one subsystem may affect many others, and these interactions can be perceived only indirectly
Coupling refers to the degree that there is little slack and a tight connection between subsystems
Tightly coupled system examples – just-in-time supply chain – a disruption in part system quickly affects other parts of the system

15. Types of systems Combinations and System characteristics
(See table 19.1 on p.493).
Q.2 What are examples of each?
High Complexity & Low Coupling
Low Complexity & Low Coupling
High Complexity & High Coupling
Low Complexity & High Coupling

16. Types of systems Combinations and System characteristics
Q.2 What are examples of each?
High Complexity & Low Coupling
Universities, Government
Low Complexity & Low Coupling
Traditional manufacturing
High Complexity & High Coupling
Nuclear power, Airplane, air travel
Low Complexity & High Coupling
Marine transport, rail transport, JIT Supply chains